Case Study †Sources of International Law, ‘Non-binding’ agreements & Treaties

Abstract International agreements are frequently entered into by sovereign States and international organisations. Whilst many of them are formal treaties and thus have binding effect, others do not fit into this category and thereby remain non-binding agreements. This often leads to a great deal of dispute resolution procedures taking place since it is generally quite difficult to determine whether an agreement is binding or not. Using Iran as a case study, an agreement that has recently been entered into will be reviewed in order to determine its legal effects and consequences. Introduction A Treaty is a written agreement that has been entered into by international law actors, such as international organisations and sovereign States. A Treaty is thus a type of contract that allows parties to voluntary enter into the agreement in order to be bound by its terms (Fitzmaurice and Elias, 2005: 10). Accordingly, treaties are â€Å"the only way States can create international law consciously† (Dixon, 2007: 26) and may either be bilateral or multilateral. The legal status of the agreement between Germany and the five permanent members of the Security Council (SC) and Iran will be reviewed in order to consider its legal status, whether it is binding and whether it will prevail over previously SC resolutions. The equality of States doctrine will also be considered in order to establish whether it is workable in practice. The legal status of this agreement. Is this a TreatyWhy? The ‘Treaty of Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons’ is a multilateral Treaty that opened for signatory at London, Moscow and Washington on the 1st July 1968 and entered into force on the 5th March 1970. The TTreaty currently has 190 State Parties, 93 signatories and 4 Depositary Governments(UN, 1968: 1). Under this Treaty Iran has been able to develop a nuclear programme that has been regarded suspicious by many other countries (Kerr, 2013: 2). Despite this Iran has persistently claimed that the peaceful nature of its activities aimed to develop nuclear energy. Consequently, Iran has thus entered into an agreement with the Security Council and Germany in order to put an end to all sanctions being inflicted upon them. Whether this will arouse further suspicion is arguably, yet the agreement, also known as the ‘Joint Action Plan’, is also a ‘Treaty’ in that it imposes obligations upon the State parties; Case Concerning the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Pro ject (Hungary v Slovakia) (1998) 37 ILM 162. Furthermore, because this is a legally binding agreement between the State parties that has been created by two or more subjects of international law, it can be recognised as having Treaty status. Under the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties all States have the capacity to make treaties. This can be made available to the SC under Article 43 (3) of the UN Charter. Again, this further indicates how this agreement is capable of being a Treaty (Hollis, 2012: 75). Nevertheless, the parties to the agreement must intend for it to be binding at international law (Villiger, 1985: 35). This does appear to be the case given that the agreement contains a unilateral Statement because as was confirmed by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in Australia v France, New Zealand v France 1974 ICJ Rep 253; unilateral statements of States are legally binding in appropriate circumstances. The legal status of this agreement is that it is therefore a Treaty and legally binding. As such, Iran will no longer be sanctioned for developing a nuclear programme, which they claim to be for peaceful purposes. Are Resolutions of the SC sources of International Law/Binding? Resolutions of the SC generally have binding effect; Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding SC Resolution 276 (1970) Advisory Opinion of 21 June 1971, although there has been some focus by the ICJ on their other effects, such as authorising effect and (dis)empowering effect (Basak, 1969: 385). The effect of the resolution will, nonetheless, depend entirely on its type . This is because a SC resolution may either be a recommendation or a decision, which are not clearly defined in the Charter. As a result, it is often difficult to determine the legal effects of such resolutions (Johnson, 1955: 107), however the Court generally refers to binding resolutions as decisions and non-binding resolutions as recommendations; Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, Paragraph 2 of the Charter) [1962] ICJ Rep 151, at 163. SC resolutions resolution are binding if they create obligations on its recipients and if they are made under Chapter VII (Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace and Acts of Agression). Since the ‘Joint Action Plan’ agreement imposes obligations on its State parties and contains a threat to the peace, it is likely that this will again render it a binding resolution. However, it has been pointed out by Hollis that the agreement is not binding on the basis that it â€Å"implies something aspirational rather than required.†(Hollis, 2013: 1). This is evident from the wording; â€Å"The goal for these negotiations is to reach a mutually-agreed long-term comprehensive solution that would ensure Iran’s nuclear programme will be exclusively peaceful (Geneva, 2014: 1). Therefore, whilst it seems that the agreement is a legally binding resolution, the fact that only recommendations are being made may suggest that it is not and sceptics ha ve argued that the plan is â€Å"just a false front for the Iranians in order to have sanctions lifted† (Midwest Diplomacy, 2013: 1). Therefore, although SC sources of international law are binding, it has been questioned whether Iran should be provided with the ability to develop their nuclear programme even further as this could have disastrous effects (Zand, 2014: 1). In case of conflict between this agreement and previous SC Resolutions which one should prevail? The determination as to whether SC decisions possess an overriding binding effect will be determined on a case by case basis. However, it is usually the case that SC recommendations will not have an overriding binding effect; Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention Arising from the Aeriel Incident at Lockerbie (Libya v UK) Preliminary Objection [1998] ICJ Rep 9, at 26, whilst SC decisions will; Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations [1949] ICJ Rep 174. Therefore, if the ‘Joint Action Plan’ is merely a recommendation then this will not be binding and will therefore not prevail over previous SC Resolutions. If the agreement is a decision, however, then it will be prevail as it will have a binding effect. In Lockbie, Provisional Measures [1992] ICJ Rep 3 it was held by the ICJ that pre-empting obligations that flow from traditional sources of international law can be overridden by the normative powers of th e SC in order to ensure that peace and security is maintained, yet the binding effect of resolutions will depend on their language, the discussions leading up to it and the provisions of the Charter being invoked (Oberg, 2005: 879). In Application for Review of Judgment no. 273 of the United Nations Administrative Tribunal (‘Mortished affair’) [1982] ICJ Rep 325 Resolution 34/165 reversed the prior decision in Resolution 33/119 in order to avoid two incompatible legal effects co-existing. Therefore, because SC Resolutions 1696 (2006) of 21 July 2006 and 1737 (2006) of 26 December 2006 will be incompatible with the new agreement, they may be reversed if the new agreement has an overriding binding effect. This is highly beneficial for Iran since they deemed the previous resolutions unfair on the basis that they had received different treatment to other States. Comment on the parties of this agreement. What does it say about the equality of States in practice? The doctrine of equality of States covers both legal equality and political equality. Legal equality deals with the legal relations that exist between States, whilst political equality deals with the distribution of economic and military power between States. Because Iran appears to have been given exceptional powers under the new agreement, it is likely that these new powers will be considered contrary to this principle. This is because Iran is effectively being given additional powers to control its nuclear program and is also being protected from any sanctions imposed by other States. As the doctrine seeks to ensure that all States are treated equally under international law, States ought to have the same rights and responsibilities as each other (Kelsen, 1952: 156). As this is not being effectuated under this agreement, it is clear that this principle is being contravened. Nevertheless, there is an exception to the doctrine in cases where there has been a ‘breach of the p eace’ or an ‘act of aggression’ that threatened international peace and security. Therefore, because Iran has stated that they aimed to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, the violation of this doctrine will be permitted (Nahar, 2005: 1). This agreement thereby illustrates that the equality of States doctrine may not actually be workable in practice since the doctrine may be contravened if the aim is to maintain international peace and security. Conclusion Overall, it appears as though Iran’s agreement with the SC and Germany is a Treaty and will therefore have binding effect. This is because the agreement has been made purely to maintain peace and security. Although Iran’s activities have been met with some suspicion over the years, they have continued to state that the peaceful nature of their activities merely aimed to develop nuclear energy. As this agreement does appear to be a Treaty, it is likely that it will be capable of prevailing over previous SC resolutions. This is welcoming for Iran who were subjected to unfairness as a result of resolutions 1696 and 1737, although not all would agree with this decision. Hence, many would argued that the agreement conflicts with the equality of States doctrine. Nevertheless, because Iran have stated that they are acting in the interests of national security, the doctrine will be capable of being breached. Accordingly, the Doctrine is therefore not always workable and in thi s instance, Iran are being treated more favourably than other States. References Basak, A. (1969) ‘Decisions of the United Nations Organs in Judgements and Opinions of the International Court of Justice’; Thierry, Resolutions of international bodies in the jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice, Collected Courses, Volume 167. Johnson, A. (1955) ‘The Effect of Resolutions of the General Assembly of the United Nations’, 32 British Year Book of International Law 97. Dixon, M. (2007) Textbook on International Law, London, Oxford University Press. Geneva. (2013) ‘Joint Plan of Action’ [Online], Available: http://im.ft-static.com/content/images/d0fa3682-5523-11e3-86bc-00144feabdc0.pdf [15 January, 2014]. Fitzmaurice, M. and Elias, O. A. (2005) Contemporary Issues in the Law of Treaties, Netherlands, Eleven International Publishing. Hollis, D. B. (2012) The Oxford Guide to Treaties, London, Oxford University Press. Hollis, D. B. (2013) ‘The New Iran Deal Doesn’t Look Legally Binding. Does It Matter?’ Opinio Juris, [Online], Available: http://opiniojuris.org/2013/11/24/new-us-iran-deal-doesnt-look-legally-binding-matter/ [14 January 2014]. Kelsen, H. (1952) Principles of International Law, London, The Lawbook Exchange. Kerr, P. K. (2013) ‘Iran’s Nuclear Program: Tehran’s Compliance with International Obligations’ Congressional Research Service, CRS Report, R40094. Oberg, M. D. (2005) ‘The Legal Effects of Resolutions of the UN Security Council and General Assembly in the Jurisprudence of the ICJ’ European Journal of International Law, Volume 16, Issue 5. Midwest Diplomacy. (2013) ‘Understanding Iran and the Nuclear ‘Joint Plan of Action’ [Online], Available: http://egiuliani.wordpress.com/2013/11/24/understanding-iran-and-the-nuclear-joint-plan-of-action/ [14 January 2014]. Nahar, S. (2005) ‘Sovereign Equality Principle in International Law’ [Online], Available: http://www.globalpolitician.com/print.asp?id=4351 [14 January 2014]. (1968) ‘Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons’ Multilateral, [Online], Available: https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20729/volume-729-I-10485-English.pdf [13 January, 2014]. Villiger, M. E. (1985) Customary International Law and Treaties: A Study of their interactions and interrelations, with special consideration of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, BRILL. Zand, L. (2014) ‘Organisations Warn Senate Against New Iran Sanctions’ Fellowship of Reconciliation, [Online], Available: http://forusa.org/blogs/leila-zand/62-organizations-warn-senate-against-new-iran-sanctions/12813 [20 January, 2014].

Australian Democracy Essay

Australia is run by a democratic system at all 3 levels of government (Federal, State and Local). Democracy means in Greek â€Å"rule by the governed†. A democrary has key fundermentals that sustains that type of leadership. In a perfect democracy every citizen has equal accessible amount of power and freedom. In Australia everyone Australian citizen over the age of 18 has a single vote to elect persons seeking election to the relevant level of government. This is one great example to the world community of fair rights and freedom. Although a prime minister governs Australia, their power is indirectly only accessible through the people’s vote Australia has grown since the first settlement on the Indigenous lands, we have created states and territories, education for our people and developed a safe community for people to live in. We have grown as a community and we have embraced our culture from this land and from the migrants to the country. In the beginning there were conflicts between the British and Indigenous people as the settlers occupied their traditional territory. This occupation issue has been festering over the years and has resulted in land claims similar to what has happened in Canada. From convicts to well educated and harmonious citizens we have become one of the most respected and multi-cultural communities, unlike other countries where there is discrimination of other cultures or totalitarian regimes in power. These along with lack of education are major reasons that lead to conflict and subsequent war within a country. In Australia we embrace our multicultural society and advertise this as an advantage for migrants to come to our country to boost our declining birth rate and ageing demographics. Being an Australian citizen you have guidelines and responsibilities that you have to follow they are: – Obey the laws and fulfil your duties as an Australian citizen – Enrol on the Electoral Register and vote at federal, state, territory and local government elections and referendums – Serve on a jury, if called upon – Defend Australia, should the need arise From these guidelines you have to respect the law, vote for your leader, become a concerned citizen and defend your country if it is needed. These rights express the freedom and voice that you have in Australia. If an unelected leader ruled you, you wouldn’t have these rights and freedoms, which Australian citizens have. The powers of the federal government are outlined in the constitution. The constitution also outlines the role of States, Judiciary and the Governor-General. This constitution can only be altered by a majority of the states having a majority of voters approving the proposed law, only 1 alteration to the constitution has happened in over 100 years and that was the granted of suffrage to the aborigines. Comparing the Australian system to another country with a totalitarian regime ruling for example in China, there is an estimated 500,000 people that are currently enduring punishment without charge or trial. Whereas in Australia you would go through court to be judged by a jury to receive the punishment required (This is exemplified by the detaining of David Hicks in Guantanomo Bay without a trial, even though he may have committed serious crimes, he should have at least had a fair and proper trial shortly after his arrest). There has been harassment, house arrest and abuse of human rights in China due to protests against the government, an issue that Australia does not face. Another interesting comparison is Fiji a place I have visited. Whilst there I noticed the non-integration of the Fijians and Indians. Consequent to this there is always tension between the two races and that is why there have been many coops over the years. The army has too much power and is able to topple the government, a situation that would be intolerable in Australia. The main issues facing Australia in 2008 are the distribution of wealth, positioning Australia for globalisation, the poor socio-economic status of our indigenous people and subsequent poor health and living condition of the indigenous people, the ageing of Australia and subsequent global warming and its subsequent impacts on the economy and the ecology. With the distribution of wealth, the government has introduced welfare to work measures and due to this and the robust economy 600,000 people have returned to work from welfare in the last 10 years. People on Centrelink payments are basically living day to day and need more money to be able to live a reasonable life style. The downside of this booming economy and persons working is the affordability of housing being an all time low. With globalisation Australia is finding a great proportion of manufactured goods being made in China. In addition our Call Centres are being staffed by more and more overseas staff (mainly Indians). Australia is lucky to be endowed with abundant resources, but this employs very few people. Due to the high cost of our labour market compared with 3rd world countries we need to continually establish niche industries that require highly educated people. The Howard government introduced a taskforce to tackle the problems faced by indigenous Australians in the Northern Territory. The Northern Territory Emergency Response was primarily initiated to give the aboriginal children a better and safer future. It is early days on this initiative, but this may be a starting point in addressing this imbalance in our society. Australia like many 1st world countries is experiencing an ageing workforce. Couples are having fewer children and later in their life, to assist couples the government has introduced a Baby Bonus payment, increase Child Care payments and has an immigration policy targeted to supplement the declining birth rate. This essay has outlined all the current positive aspects of Australian society, but we need to address the future and the sustainability of our environment for our grandchildren. The federal government is addressing this issue by introducing a carbon-trading scheme. This carbon trading scheme, where the tax on carbon producing goods and services go into a positive influence on the environment, for example planting trees. The Australian government is following leads by other countries in this circumstance. Australia may have its problems e. g Obesity problems, homeless persons, cost of housing. But these pale into insignificance when compared with issues faced by countries with civil wars and health epidemics (such as Aids in Africa). Australians give money to overseas charities, a great example of this was the tsunamis experienced South East Asia. Following this catastrophic event the Charity Organisations were inundated with money. In addition the Federal Government gives substantial sums of money to our Pacific neighbours. Australia although not a power on the world stage can impose a lot of influence in the Pacific Islands. Australia is a far from perfect country but through a democratic system anyone of voting age can do things to address the problems that they see as an important issue. This can be illustrated by the election of the Rudd government on its environmental and workplace relations’ platform. The Howard government argued that without India and China aboard any carbon trading scheme would not work. They are probably right in this issue, so the Rudd government needs to set up a fair and equitable trading scheme and find some way on imposing a carbon tax on any goods and services we get from countries that do not have a scheme in place. Research Essay on Democracy and Citizenship in Australia â€Å"Australia is an excellent example to the world of a democracy which values the participation of its citizens in all levels of government. Discuss† In this essay I will examine the development of Australian society and subsequent rights given to Australian citizens, thus addressing the guiding question as quoted at the top of the paper. Australia is run by a democratic system at all 3 levels of government (Federal, State and Local). Democracy means in Greek â€Å"rule by the governed†. A democrary has key fundermentals that sustains that type of leadership. In a perfect democracy every citizen has equal accessible amount of power and freedom. In Australia everyone Australian citizen over the age of 18 has a single vote to elect persons seeking election to the relevant level of government. This is one great example to the world community of fair rights and freedom. Although a prime minister governs Australia, their power is indirectly only accessible through the people’s vote Australia has grown since the first settlement on the Indigenous lands, we have created states and territories, education for our people and developed a safe community for people to live in. We have grown as a community and we have embraced our culture from this land and from the migrants to the country. In the beginning there were conflicts between the British and Indigenous people as the settlers occupied their traditional territory. This occupation issue has been festering over the years and has resulted in land claims similar to what has happened in Canada. From convicts to well educated and harmonious citizens we have become one of the most respected and multi-cultural communities, unlike other countries where there is discrimination of other cultures or totalitarian regimes in power. These along with lack of education are major reasons that lead to conflict and subsequent war within a country. In Australia we embrace our multicultural society and advertise this as an advantage for migrants to come to our country to boost our declining birth rate and ageing demographics. Being an Australian citizen you have guidelines and responsibilities that you have to follow they are: – Obey the laws and fulfil your duties as an Australian citizen – Enrol on the Electoral Register and vote at federal, state, territory and local government elections and referendums – Serve on a jury, if called upon. – Defend Australia, should the need arise From these guidelines you have to respect the law, vote for your leader, become a concerned citizen and defend your country if it is needed. These rights express the freedom and voice that you have in Australia. If an unelected leader ruled you, you wouldn’t have these rights and freedoms, which Australian citizens have. The powers of the federal government are outlined in the constitution. The constitution also outlines the role of States, Judiciary and the Governor-General. This constitution can only be altered by a majority of the states having a majority of voters approving the proposed law, only 1 alteration to the constitution has happened in over 100 years and that was the granted of suffrage to the aborigines. Comparing the Australian system to another country with a totalitarian regime ruling for example in China, there is an estimated 500,000 people that are currently enduring punishment without charge or trial. Whereas in Australia you would go through court to be judged by a jury to receive the punishment required (This is exemplified by the detaining of David Hicks in Guantanomo Bay without a trial, even though he may have committed serious crimes, he should have at least had a fair and proper trial shortly after his arrest). There has been harassment, house arrest and abuse of human rights in China due to protests against the government, an issue that Australia does not face. Another interesting comparison is Fiji a place I have visited. Whilst there I noticed the non-integration of the Fijians and Indians. Consequent to this there is always tension between the two races and that is why there have been many coops over the years. The army has too much power and is able to topple the government, a situation that would be intolerable in Australia. The main issues facing Australia in 2008 are the distribution of wealth, positioning Australia for globalisation, the poor socio-economic status of our indigenous people and subsequent poor health and living condition of the indigenous people, the ageing of Australia and subsequent global warming and its subsequent impacts on the economy and the ecology. With the distribution of wealth, the government has introduced welfare to work measures and due to this and the robust economy 600,000 people have returned to work from welfare in the last 10 years. People on Centrelink payments are basically living day to day and need more money to be able to live a reasonable life style. The downside of this booming economy and persons working is the affordability of housing being an all time low. With globalisation Australia is finding a great proportion of manufactured goods being made in China. In addition our Call Centres are being staffed by more and more overseas staff (mainly Indians). Australia is lucky to be endowed with abundant resources, but this employs very few people. Due to the high cost of our labour market compared with 3rd world countries we need to continually establish niche industries that require highly educated people. The Howard government introduced a taskforce to tackle the problems faced by indigenous Australians in the Northern Territory. The Northern Territory Emergency Response was primarily initiated to give the aboriginal children a better and safer future. It is early days on this initiative, but this may be a starting point in addressing this imbalance in our society. Australia like many 1st world countries is experiencing an ageing workforce. Couples are having fewer children and later in their life, to assist couples the government has introduced a Baby Bonus payment, increase Child Care payments and has an immigration policy targeted to supplement the declining birth rate. This essay has outlined all the current positive aspects of Australian society, but we need to address the future and the sustainability of our environment for our grandchildren. The federal government is addressing this issue by introducing a carbon-trading scheme. This carbon trading scheme, where the tax on carbon producing goods and services go into a positive influence on the environment, for example planting trees. The Australian government is following leads by other countries in this circumstance. Australia may have its problems e. g Obesity problems, homeless persons, cost of housing. But these pale into insignificance when compared with issues faced by countries with civil wars and health epidemics (such as Aids in Africa). Australians give money to overseas charities, a great example of this was the tsunamis experienced South East Asia. Following this catastrophic event the Charity Organisations were inundated with money. In addition the Federal Government gives substantial sums of money to our Pacific neighbours. Australia although not a power on the world stage can impose a lot of influence in the Pacific Islands. Australia is a far from perfect country but through a democratic system anyone of voting age can do things to address the problems that they see as an important issue. This can be illustrated by the election of the Rudd government on its environmental and workplace relations’ platform. The Howard government argued that without India and China aboard any carbon trading scheme would not work. They are probably right in this issue, so the Rudd government needs to set up a fair and equitable trading scheme and find some way on imposing a carbon tax on any goods and services we get from countries that do not have a scheme in place.

Macroeconomics Tutorial Test Essay

Question 1. (i) Identify and briefly explain the main features of the business cycle. (2 marks) Business cycles are usually characterized by periods of transition from peak to trough and then from trough to peak. The peak of a business cycle is the high point of GDP prior to a downturn whereas a Trough is the low point economic activity prior to a recovery. The period in which the economy is moving from a peak to a trough is called a contraction and the period in which the economy is moving from a trough to peak is an Expansion. (ii) Explain the concepts of (a) potential output and (b) the output gap. (3 marks) Potential Output (y*) or full employment output is the level of GDP an economy can produce when using its resources, such as labour and capital, at normal rates. This is not the same as maximum output. Potential output grows over time with growth in labour and capital and with growths in technology. At any point in time, the difference between the economy’s potential output and actual output is called the output gap (y – y*). A positive output gap, which occurs when actual output is higher than potential output and when resources are being utilised at above-normal rates, is called an expansionary gap. This is related to firms operating above normal capacity and can lead them to raise prices (inflationary). On the other hand, a negative output gap, which occurs when potential output exceeds actual output and when resources are not being utilised, is called a contractionary gap. This is re lated to capital and labour not being fully utilised (cost in terms of forgone output). (iii) Explain the concept of Okun’s law. Discuss the implications of Okun law for policymakers. (5 marks) Okun’s law states that each extra percentage point of cyclical unemployment is associated with about a 1.6 percentage point (for Australia) increase in the output gap, measured in relation to potential output. The quantitative relationship is (y-y*)/y* = -B(u-u*). This describes how an additional percentage point of cyclical unemployment is associated with a B percentage point decline in the output gap. The output losses associated sustained in recessions, calculated according to Okun’s law, can be quite significant. Calculations using this relationship depict that output gaps and cyclical unemployment may have major costs. Therefore, we can conclude with the fact that the public and policymakers have concern in relation to contractions and recessions. Question 2 (i) Discuss the role played by fixed (or sticky) prices in the Keynesian model of income determination. Briefly explain what would happen if prices were fully flexible in the short run. (2 marks) New Keynesians assume prices and wages are fixed or sticky, meaning that they do not change easily or quickly with alterations in supply and demand, so that quantity adjustment prevails. When prices are sticky, higher aggregate demand raises production, and this raises incomes. If prices were fully flexible in the short run, economy’s resources would be fully employed and thereby the economy would return to the natural level of real GDP. Firms would stop producing when price is lower than production cost, so there would be less competition. (ii) Explain the concept of Planned Aggregate Expenditure (PAE). How does PAE differ from Actual Expenditure? (2 marks) Planned Aggregate Expenditure is the total planned spending on final goods and services. In equilibrium, planned expenditure and actual expenditure must equal in the economy. The difference between planned and actual expenditure is unplanned inventory investment. When firms sell fewer products than planned, stocks of inventories increase. Because of this, actual expenditure can be above or below planned expenditure. (iii) Use the Keynesian aggregate expenditure model and appropriate diagrams to explain the following: – The paradox of thrift – The effect on equilibrium GDP of an exogenous increase in exports. (6 marks) Question 3 (i) Explain what is meant by the multiplier? Why, in general, does a one dollar change in exogenous expenditure produce a larger change in short-run output? (3 marks) The income-expenditure multiplier, or the multiplier for short, is the effect of a one-unit increase in exogenous expenditure on short-run equilibrium output. For example, a multiplier of 3 means that a 6-unit decrease in exogenous expenditure reduces short-run equilibrium output by 18 units. Therefore, a one dollar change in exogenous expenditure produce a larger change in short-run output as initial amount of expenditure leads to raised consumption spending resulting in an increase in national income greater than the initial amount of spending. (ii) Explain the role played by the marginal propensity to import in determining the size of the multiplier. Other things equal, how does an increase in the marginal propensity to import affect the size of the multiplier? (3 marks) The marginal propensity to import is the change in imports divided by the change in disposable income. It decides the slope of the aggregate expenditures line and is part to the multiplier process. Similar to taxes, the marginal propensity to import tends to lower the size of the multiplier as demand for domestically produced final goods and services falls. An increase in the marginal propensity to import increases the value of the denominator of the equation, which then decreases the overall value of the fraction and thus the size of the multiplier. (iii) Use a diagram to illustrate the concept of short-run equilibrium in the Keynesian aggregate expenditure model. Suppose the economy is initially not in equilibrium, explain the process by which the economy adjusts to equilibrium. (4 marks) Question 4 (i) What are the main instruments of fiscal policy? Explain how each might be used to close an expansionary output gap. (4 marks) Main components of Fiscal Policy: – Government expenditure: Government spending of goods and services, investment and infrastructure directly affects total spending. If too much or too little total spending causes output gaps, the government can help to guide the economy toward full employment by changing its own level of spending. – Taxes or transfer payments: In contrast, changes in tax or transfers do not affect planned spending directly. When disposable income rises households should spend more. Thus tax cut or increase in transfers should increase planned aggregate expenditure. Similarly, an increase in taxes or a cut in transfers, by lowering households’ disposable income, will tend to lower planned spending. This stimulates spending and eliminates contractionary gap. (ii) Explain what is meant by the government budget constraint. Indicate how it provides a link between fiscal policy and public debt. (3 marks) Government budget constraint is the term given to the concept that government spending in any period had to be financial either by raising taxes or by government borrowing.We can denote government expenditure undertaken by the government in period t by Gt and transfer payments by Qt. Therefore, the total spending activities of the government can be noted as Gt+ Qt. Also, the government has three means at its disposal to finance this expenditure: 1. Taxes available to be spent by government it time t – denoted by Tt. 2. Issued security when government borrows money – This is a financial asset that obliges the government to repay the loan, and pay interest, over some designated time period. Bt-2 is the stock of securities that the government still has owing at the end of the last period. Any new borrowing that the government unde rtakes in period t will be denoted as Bt – Bt-1. The stockpile of debt that accumulates when government continues borrowing money is called the public debt. 3. Interest needed to pay on government’s stock of debt – in any time t the government pays interest of rBt-1 where r is the real rate of interest. Government expenditures (purchases, transfer payments and interest payments) in any period need to be funded by taxes or by borrowing. This is the Government budget constraint summarized as below: Gt+ Qt + rBt-1 = Tt + (Bt – Bt-1). If we rearrange this so that gross taxes are on the left-hand side, the link between fiscal policy and the stock of public debt becomes readily apparent: Gt+ Qt – Tt + rBt-1 = (Bt – Bt-1). (iii) Explain the difference between discretionary fiscal policy and automatic stabilisers. Which one of these will be the main influence on the size of the structural budget deficit? Explain. (3 marks) Discretionary fiscal policy refers to deliberate changes in the level of government spending, transfer payments or in tax rates. Automatic stabilizers refer to the tendency for a system of taxes and transfers, which are related to the level of income to automatically reduce the size of GDP fluctuations.

Spartans Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Spartans - Essay Example In his career he has published over 65 articles, with 12 forthcoming articles and chapters such as 'Sparta' in The Classical Tradition (Harvard University Press). In 2004, Professor Cartledge was appointed an Honorary Citizen of Sparta. The Spartans is a convincing narrative that explores the culture and civilization of the most famous "warrior people": the Spartans of ancient Greece, by the world's leading specialist in the field. Sparta has often been described as the original Utopia--a remarkably evolved society whose warrior heroes were forbidden any other trade, profession, or business. As a people, the Spartans were the living exemplars of such core values as duty, discipline, the nobility of arms in a cause worth dying for, sacrificing the individual for the greater good of the community (illustrated by their role in the battle of Thermopylae), and the triumph of will over seemingly insuperable obstacles--qualities that today are frequently believed to signify the ultimate heroism. Paul Cartledge is the distinguished scholar and historian who have long been seen as the leading international authority on ancient Sparta. He traces the evolution of Spartan society--the culture and the people, as well as the tre mendous influence they had on their world and even ours. He details throughout the narrative the lives of such illustrious and myth-making figures as Lycurgus, King Leonidas, Helen of Troy (and Sparta), and Lysander, and explains how the Spartans, although they placed a high value on masculine ideals, nevertheless allowed women an unusually dominant and powerful role--unlike Athenian culture with which the Spartans are so often compared. In resurrecting the ancient culture and society of the Spartans, Cartledge delves deep into ancient texts and archeological sources and complements his text with illustrations that depict original Spartan artifacts and drawings, as well as examples of representational paintings from the Renaissance onwards. The Spartans built a warrior culture in ancient Greece unsurpassed for its courage and military prowess. Eminent historian Cartledge (Spartan Reflections) provides a remarkable chronicle of Sparta's rise and fall, from its likely origins around 1100 B.C. to the height of its fame and glory in the battle of Thermopylae in 480 B.C. and its fall in the fourth century B.C. The Spartans built their society through conquest and subjugation, ruling over their subject peoples with an iron hand and putting down revolts with devastating might. Between 490 and 479, Sparta joined Athens in fighting the Persians in three key wars-Thermopylae, Plataea and Mycale-that contributed to the demise of Persian power and the rise of Hellenistic power on the Mediterranean. Cartledge punctuates his absorbing tale with brief, engaging biographies of the city-state's kings from Lycurgus, the earliest Spartan leader, who brought constitutional law to the city, to Leonidas, who led the Spartans at Thermopylae. According to

A Person as the Property Speech or Presentation

A Person as the Property - Speech or Presentation Example According to the research study today, slavery today is illegal and is abolished by many countries around the world as they consider the act barbaric and overtaken by time. The international laws and treaties including domestic laws in the individual countries consider the trade illegitimate and recognize it as abuse of human rights. Slave trade has done more harm than good ultimately, a part from denying people their rights as enshrined in the constitutions, and it has also deprived the society of able population culminating into loss of artisanship and abject poverty in the zones.This essay stresses that  slavery started long time ago with several slave dealers scattered all over the world especially in Africa. The few rich dealers in slavery organized for the capturing of able-bodied people, which were then taken to the market for purchase by the merchants. Slaves were captured in a brutal exercise that left many people maimed and killed. The villages were deprived work force si nce there was extraction of those who could economically improve the status of the society. The slaves were then assembled in designated areas that were used as markets through which the prospective buyers met the sellers. After the purchase, slaves would be taken to diverse areas where demand was rife, for instance, others would be taken to US, Europe, Asia et cetera.  The sultanate that was based in Zanzibar abetted the trade and these made most of the population from the region to be taken to the Middle East as slaves.... The system of capturing slaves both in the Arabic world and in the rest of the world remained more or less the same. Most of the slaves that were captured by the Middle East traders though were largely drawn from Mediterranean, Turkic, and Persians (Marmon 113). This trend also spread to other parts of the world and reached African continent as a new area for acquisition of the slaves. Following the establishment of the Omani rule in Eastern, part of Africa became a factor that accelerated slavery in the region. The sultanate that was based in Zanzibar abetted the trade and these made most of the population from the region to be taken to the Middle East as slaves. The Portuguese and the Europeans who also had interest in the same region did not welcome the establishment of the rule along the East African coast led by the Arabs. Because of the trade related issues, there arose a commercial conflict between the two dominant groups, the Portuguese and the Arabs; this led to a series of wars that emerged between the rivaling groups owing to the control of slave trade along the East coast. It is estimated that by the time the slave trade was abolished, approximately 18 million Africans were transferred to the Middle East where they were placed under bondage (Marmon 124). Some of the prominent people that stood out due to slave trade from the Middle East were Tippu Tip. He was one of the most known slave dealer who transferred million of slaves a cross the Red sea, the Sahara desert, and the Indian Ocean (Pipes). History also reports that the Arabs also enslaved some of the Europeans and about 1 million in relation to this were captured and placed under bondage in the Arab world. With the

In the Court of Appeals of the State of Illinois Melissa Porter vs Research Paper

In the Court of Appeals of the State of Illinois Melissa Porter vs John Straub - Research Paper Example On November 14, 2011, the District Court ruled in her favor. There was no Motion to Modify Child Support filed by either party. However, the District Court Judge made an Order of Child Support. Pursuant to that Order, the Judge allowed for a deviation from the child support guidelines to accommodate Mr. Straub’s new child, born of his current marriage. There is no Order of Support for that child. There was nothing in the Order addressing unpaid support. STATEMENT OF THE FACTS In October 2011, Melissa Porter sought to regain custody of her son, David, from the child’s father, John Straub. There was an order of Paternity, Custody and Support entered in a Florida court in 2008. Pursuant to that Order, Mr. Straub was ordered to pay $100 per month in child support. His payment history was poor and he was in arrears when Ms. Porter found it necessary to join the Army Reserves to supplement her income in order to properly care for the child. Ms. Porter and Mr. Straub had a ver bal agreement that he would care for his son while Ms. Porter completed Basic Training in the Army Reserves. Mr. Straub was ten months in arrears in his child support obligation at the time he began caring for his son in August 2010. Ms. Porter was injured in a training accident while on active duty and spent several months recovering. Upon her return home, she sought the return of the child and Mr. Straub refused. Mr. Straub filed for custody in the Illinois courts. That filing resulted in an Order granting custody to Mr. Straub. Ms. Porter filed for an Order to Vacate that finding and the District Court for Cook County found in her favor, returning her son to her. During the course of those proceedings, the District Court made a support order, allowing a 20% deduction from the Illinois child support guideline amount to accommodate Mr. Straub’s new child of his current marriage. There was no provision for paying the arrearage. There was no inclusion for the income of Mr. Str aub’s current spouse when calculating the total net income upon which the support amount should be based, nor was there a finding on the record of the guideline amount upon which the deduction would be based. When Ms. Porter objected, the judge instructed the parties to â€Å"take it up on appeal.† Appellant now appeals from the Order Modifying Support. ARGUMENT The facts of the case are not in dispute. All parties were present when the District Court judge modified the child support order to accommodate Mr. Straub’s parental obligation to his new child of his current marriage. The judge deducted 20% from the guideline amount without stating an initial child support guideline amount and the factors at law that allowed him to vary from the statutory guidelines. I. Standard of Review Of the issue presented here on appeal, the standard of review is de novo because there is no dispute as to the facts and the issue is a question of law. In re Marriage of Baumgartner, 393 Ill. App. 3d 297; 912 N.E.2d 783 (2009). See also Einstein v. Nijim, 358 Ill. App. 3d 263, 831 N.E.2d 50 (2005). A judgment is contrary to law â€Å"when an opposite conclusion is apparent or when findings appear to be unreasonable, arbitrary, or not based on evidence.†

LCT Task 4 English Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

LCT Task 4 English - Term Paper Example The book focuses on the social and economic pressures that were rampant in England at the time it was written. The story is set in a fictitious industrial town called Coketown, which is based on Preston during the 19th century. One of the main focuses of this novel was utilitarianism which holds that the ultimate objective of every individual is to promote general social welfare. The social struggle depicted in this novel is mostly centered on industrialists and workers. The story revolves around various characters including Thomas Gradgrind who is a wealthy ex-merchant living in Coketown. Gradgrind has devoted his life to rationalism, fact and self-interest, and this philosophy is the one that he uses in bringing up Louisa and Tom, two of his children. Tom grows up to be a sadistic hedonist while his sister Louisa constantly struggles with confusion. She later marries her father’s friend, Josiah Bounderby, a rich banker and industrialist who is thirty years her senior. In the meantime, an impoverished Stephen Blackpool, is in love with a poor factory worker but he cannot marry her as he already ahs a wife who is drunk and not loyal to him. However, he learns from Bounderby that he cannot get a divorce from his horrible wife since it is only the wealthy who are allowed to get divorced. In the end, Bounderby dies alone in Coketown’s streets while Gridgrind abandons his philosophy and decides to devote his political position to help the poor (Dickens, 1854). Persuasion by Jane Austen Persuasion was the last novel completed by Jane Austen in 1816 (Faye, 2003). This is one of the author’s novels that reflects the changes occurring in England’s social order at the time (Faye, 2003). This period was marked by many members of the peerage group losing their high places in society. The book begins with a scenario where the Elliots, an upper class family, is considering moving to a smaller residence. They want to rent out their big mansion to a navy man named Admiral Croft. Baronets such as Anne’s father were finding it difficult to maintain their spendthrift lifestyles. Anne’s family refuses her to get married to Wentworth, who they consider to be poor. However, in the end, Wentworth is able to gain wealth and finally marries Anne (Austen, 1934). How Does Plot Reveal Characters’ Social Struggle? The plot of Hard Times is divided into three sections: sowing, reaping and garnering. Sowing focuses on Mr. Gradgrind and the way that he brings up his children, especially Louisa and Tom. His high-class life philosophy is inculcated in the upbringing of the two and this later is shown to have a serious impact on their lives. Mr. Gradgrind is a strong believer that ample education based on facts and calculations is the only way to live a good life. However, later on in the book, Louisa and Tom do not benefit at all from this philosophy of the wealthy. Tom becomes a hedonist and a thief and Louisa is confused with her life and ends up making the mistake of marrying a man more than twice her age. The second part of the book introduces workers who work at the mills. Stephen Blackpool is one of the poor workers and he is presented as a â€Å"man of perfect integrity†. It is through the development of Stephen’s character in the second part of Hard Times that the morality of the nobility is contrasted with the so called morality of the lower class. Through Stephen’s character some of the issues faced by the poor workers such as not being allowed

Economic policies of the UK on overcoming global financial crisis of Essay

Economic policies of the UK on overcoming global financial crisis of 2008 - Essay Example Every crisis has a unique cause, as well as characteristics; however, the following are typical amongst the factors responsible for generating this disaster: overshooting of markets; rise in credit; excessive debt leveraging; incorrect view of dangers; a country’s capital flight; off-balance sheet procedures by banks; macroeconomic policies that are non-sustainable; deregulation with no appropriate system of supervision; and latest financial instruments utilized in an inappropriate manner. The distinctiveness of the current disaster is that it happens to be a combination of a financial crisis coming from one of the largest world economy, i.e. the USA, with a universal downturn. The present financial crisis got triggered by the replete of the housing bubble, together with the consequent sub-prime mortgage crisis within the USA. Although the crisis has not yet been thoroughly analyzed, there are suggestions by experts that a number of causes explaining the reasons for the sub-pr ime crisis, which exploded in August 2007 in the USA ( Hansjorg & Milka 2011, p.36). There are two significant trends in the years resulting in the crisis; firstly, interest rates had been dropping since the 1980s, secondly, following the financial crisis in Asia during 1997–1998, countries began accumulating foreign exchange reserves, aided by the current account deficit of the US. The majority of countries diverted part of their reserves to sovereign wealth funds put into higher-yielding assets compared to the US Treasury, in addition to other government securities, streaming into high technology stocks and, following the â€Å"dot.com Bubble† spout in 2000, to housing markets within the USA and countries such as the UK. The continuous falling of interest rates, along with the large...This paper clearly outlines the effectiveness of the economic response of the UK to the global financial crisis challenges. Every crisis has a unique cause, as well as characteristics; however, the following are typical factors responsible for their origination: overshooting of markets; rise in credit; excessive debt leveraging; incorrect view of dangers; a country’s capital flight; off-balance sheet procedures by banks; macroeconomic policies that are non-sustainable; deregulation with no appropriate system of supervision; and latest financial instruments utilized in an inappropriate manner. In March 2011, the Government published its â€Å"Plan for Growth† This plan had four ambitions: creating the most competitive system of tax within the G20 group of key economies; making the UK the best place within Europe for starting, financing and growing business; encouraging investment, as well as exports as a key to a more balanced economy; and finally creating a more educated workforce that happens to be the most flexible within Europe. Amongst the measures announced were a lessening in the tax rate on the profits of businesses; an internationally competitive tax rule governing multinational organizations; tax enticement for company investment; an embalm of deregulation particularly for helping small businesses; additional investment within infrastructure, science, vocational training, research and development. In 2009, the international leadership of the UK through its chairmanship of the G20 assisted the world in taming the worst economic crisis. It succeeded in drawing the leaders of the world's main economies at the G20 Summit thereby agreeing on strongly coordinated action of stabilizing the world economy.

Question wk 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Question wk 3 - Essay Example Leaders are big zeros without followers. Followers are the strengths and weaknesses of the leaders. Some leaders might get better followers and they will face fewer problems in leading them whereas some other leaders may get problematic followers and it is difficult for them to lead such followers towards the target. People will never follow somebody blindly. They will follow somebody for some purpose. Leaders can effectively lead the followers only if they will be able to provide genuine reasons for the mutual benefits. In any case, leadership and followership are interconnected and neither of it can survive without having the support from the other one. I expect my followers to support me always even if I made some unpopular decisions. They should realize that the ultimate aim of my decisions would be to reach the target which is good for them as well. If they have some disagreements with my decisions, I expect them to make me aware of it privately rather than complaining publicly. My followers should keep all their discussions with me as a private matter and they should never discuss it with their colleagues. Such open discussions may create problems to me as well as to them also. They should accept all the responsibilities provided to them. I don’t like somebody capable of taking a responsibility, denying it when it is offered to him. My followers should reveal the truth or the exact reasons to me if they were unable to do something instructed. They should never hide any information related to the project from me. Moreover, they should have better knowledge about their own strengths and weaknesses. I expect all my follower s to communicate well with me and communicate well with each other. They should take initiatives wherever possible to solve a problem and should not wait for my instructions always, if they have absolute surety of the solutions. I always try to keep all the above aspects of followership in my dealings with my

Current event in medical organization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Current event in medical organization - Essay Example consequently, such prescriptions could result into addiction, occasional psychosis and anxiety. Doctors recommend timely diagnosis which works to counter the effects of the disorder at least at an early age. The American Psychiatric Association is working on a bid to ensure that an increased number of teenagers can access prescribed medication after diagnosis. This article reveals the disorder is as a result of abnormal chemical imbalance in the brain. The chemicals interfere with an individual’s attention skills and impulse control as well. Patient and doctors advocates have never seized to differ of the rising diagnosis rates. Proponents hold the school of thought that the rising rates indicate proper management of the disorder. Opponents on the other hand think that the respective prescriptions only work to calm an individual’s behavior. The disorder can readily be determined through extensive talks with parents, patients and teachers. However, the rising cases of diagnosis and treatment of the disorder should be well managed in order to strike a reasonable balance (Schwarz and Cohen, 2). In line with class work, the article revisits thus highlights the disorder a major in the American society. One is able to understand how the A.D.H.D disorder has been well advertises thus increasing the sale of respective treatments. Additionally, that if left untreated, the disorder could easily affect a child’s academic performance is a genuine concern that only calls for proactive attitude when dealing with the disorder. Alonso-Zaldivar (2) questions the significance of marketing to resolving pertinent issues associated with Obamacare. Obama’s initiative has since received mixed reactions from various stakeholders. It is no wonder that the initiative has been viewed as complex and controversial. This has forced the government to invest heavily on mass marketing to promote awareness in the country. This initiative has been shot

Writing Style and Light Wine Essay Example for Free

Writing Style and Light Wine Essay Different writing styles appeal to different audiences. In an excerpt from, The Life of Samuel Johnson, by James Boswell, Boswell distinguishes between the two very different writing styles of Joseph Addison and Samuel Johnson. Boswell believes both are very esteemed writers but it is evident Boswell favors Johnson’s style over Addison’s. Boswell conveys his perspective on both styles with diction and devices, namely similes and metaphors. At first Boswell defends Addison against claims made on Addison’s writing style as â€Å"nerveless and feeble† compared to that of Johnson’s. In his passage, Boswell considers the social position from which Addison is writing from. He states â€Å"Addison writes with the ease of a gentleman†, indicating Addison’s style has a casual, eloquent, and polite manner. Addison’s style is flowing and easygoing like a conversation, indicating that he writes the way he speaks. He is more like an â€Å"accomplished companion† and does not write like he is above his audience from an intellectual standpoint but rather a knowledgeable colleague. Boswell signifies Addison is more relaxed with his writing and is easy to understand from the beginning to end. Addison â€Å"insinuates his sentiments† with an â€Å"imperceptible influence†. The way Addison communicates his ideas is not imposing and not very forceful. He causes his audience to consider his point of view and supports it with viable arguments bringing the reader to respect him. He is more like a â€Å"light wine† where he appeals to everyone. In contrast, Johnson’s style is bolder and more forceful. Boswell observes that â€Å"Johnson writes like a teacher†; Johnson as opposed to Addison makes himself known as the higher intellectual to his audience. Johnson does not hold back and states his arguments firmly like a professor speaking in front of his students. He â€Å"dictates to his readers as if from an academical chair† and does not simply suggest his point like Addison but conveys it with a commanding nature. Johnson’s readers do not just respect him, they look at him with â€Å"awe and admiration†. Boswell is one of those readers who finds Addison’s writing pleasing but prefers a more intellectually exciting read that can be found in Johnson’s work. Boswell sees Johnson’s writing as more invigorating and captivating to the ear, writing that others aim for. â€Å"Highly relished† and â€Å"like liquor of more body† is how Boswell describes his view on Johnson’s writing. The after effect of Johnson’s work is more lasting and is far more appreciated by those looking for more substance. It is apparent Boswell favors a more mind stimulating read. Readers find enjoyment in Addison’s work but are astounded by Johnson’s. He states both styles appeal to different audiences, with readers fancying Addison but admiring Johnson. Boswell respects Addison and does not show any disrespect to him in the least but clearly favors Johnson’s style. He praises both authors but elevates Johnson in a subtle way. Boswell contrasts both writers as Addison being more like â€Å"light wine† and Johnson as â€Å"liquor of more body†. Liquor is more complex while light wine is simpler. It takes one with refined taste to fully appreciate the boldness of liquor versus a common wine that is simply pleasing to everyone. Addison’s work can still be enjoyed but Johnson’s work is for those who wish to be intoxicated with knowledge.

Role of Teacher Essay Example for Free

Role of Teacher Essay Teachers instill a want for learning within the student while formulating a structured path for the student to succeed. The role of a teacher is to stimulate this want to learn, while providing the necessary tools and guidance for the student. The classroom should be a learning environment that students are excited to participate in because the desire to learn is exemplified by the teacher. The best teachers I’ve had have instilled this desire to learn through a number of different skills working cohesively to help guide me through the educational process. These teachers had the greatest impact on me because they took my desire for learning personally, and did all they could to ensure the best possible learning environment. When learning is enjoyable, the likely hood of students continuing to learn independently of the teacher increases. Some of the skills that helped create this environment included patience, organization, awareness, encouragement, and an open mind. The best teacher I’ve ever had utilized all these skills, and I remember her from my freshman year of high school. I had ADHD as a teenager, and had trouble sitting still to say the least. My math teacher had the patience to work with me, while managing and guiding the rest of the students in the class. She developed a unique way to grasp my attention while other teachers could not, and her class ended up being the most exciting class in my high school career. Her awareness of my unique situation and having the patience and open mind to try teaching differently was what inspired my love of math. I received my highest grade that semester in her class because the desire to learn the subject came from within, but was exemplified by the teacher. She would not have been able to manage the entire classroom with this unique approach without organization and encouragement of each individual student. A few of these skills can make a good teacher, but a great teacher uses all of their s kills cohesively to create a positive interactive learning environment. The worst teacher I’ve experienced had a personal goal to be the hardest teacher on campus, rather than the greatest. Being a hard teacher doesn’t ensure a students success, and can deter the student from wanting to learn. A great teacher understands the needs of all their students, while working with their students to learn. When focusing on becoming the hardest teacher, unrealistic goals and expectations are set that can take away from the confidence of the student as well as the approachability of the teacher.  This creates a gap in the teacher – student relationship that can be detrimental to learning. While I learned a lot from a teacher who tried to be the hardest, they didn’t create a desire for me to learn. The class turned into a workbook, rather than a learning experience. While some subjects are naturally harder than others, I believe they an be approached uniquely and can be taught in a way that makes sense to any student given the right patience. This teacher was an exceptionally brilliant math professor, however – his class average was a failing grade which he was proud of. If the class average is failing, then he’s not teaching to the whole of the class or looking at the students individually. It’s possible to teach a hard subject in a way that the core ideas and theories can be grasped by al l the students and individually helped as necessary. It’s not one quality that sets a good teacher apart from another, but a number of qualities working together that create the right experience. When looking at the list in section 1.2, all of these are qualities of a good teacher. However, the number of qualities that make a great teacher is far too long to list. It’s instead, how well the teacher uses each of these qualities cohesively in and outside the classroom environment. These qualities include patience, approachability, confidence, awareness, and an open mind. These qualities are a complete necessity to the success in a teaching role.

Justice In The Old Testament Religion Essay

Justice In The Old Testament Religion Essay INTRODUCTION WHAT IS JUSTICE The general understanding of justice is giving a person his due. That is to say if the if someone has done more should be rewarded more. In short it is concerned with fair distribution of goods, opportunities justice demands that every individual should be rewarded according to what he or she had done, nothing more or nothing less. Now having understood the general understanding of justice, it is imperative that we look at what the bible say about justice. JUSTICE IN THE OLD TESTAMENT The Old Testament talks of three dimensions of Justice. That is distributive Justice, fair dealing and secondly public justice and finally rectitude that are the integrity of a person. The Old Testament has terms which are used to describe justice, which are mishpat and tsedeq .Tsedeq refers to a persons righteousness (tsedeq). Apart from that it is used for honest scales and measurements. It can also mean good governance. Mishpat and tsedeq are interchangeable. According to DD Raphael, mishpat Means Judgment, the discussion of Judge but with a normative connotation (2001:11). According to him mishpat is concerned with the judge. That is how the judge executes his legal matters. In short he is talking about the character of the judge in executing his judgment. So when mishpat is used in the Old Testament it is concerned the character of God in executing judgment up on the evil doers. It is concerned with the character of an individual in dealing with his fellow individual. On this part we can see the difference between tsedeq and mishpat. It is recorded that tsedeq is used of the character of the defendant than the conduct of the Judge (Howard Marshall 1980:10). In addition we can say that tsedeq does not concern the righteousness of the judge but it is concerned with the character of an individual. Further Raphael noted that The punishment of the crime against a person should be that a wrongdoer suffer the same harm as he has caused (Ex.21:23-25) 2001:14). According to Howard M. Justice and Judgment consist very much in bringing the oppressors of the poor and needy to naught. THE GENERAL UNDERSTANDING OF SOCIAL JUSTICE Justice has generally two components which constitutes justice these are Social and justice. Social is the team used to refer to how people live in the community or how people live in the society. Justice on the other hand deals with up holding what is just or treating people fairly according to honour or/ and standard. So when these terms are used together, it can be said that social justice exist when people are given what is due from their community. Social justice deals in three areas. That is economic justice, remedial and distributive justice. Economic and remedial justice ensures that every person is given equal and fair opportunities to access a societys economic resources and its political and legal systems. Distributive justice also focuses on outcomes which are fair. It is interestingly to note that all three forms of Justice Emphasis much on the social responsibilities of human beings. BIBLICAL UNDERSTANDING OF SOCIAL JUSTICE When Old Testament talks of Justice, it does not only mean being or acting justly but also the kind of situation that would result when Justice is executed. Apart from the Old Testament dealing with righteousness (tsedeqa) and justice or judgment (mishpat) the Old Testament also deals with helping the needy. For example Leviticus 19:9-10, God is reminding the children of Israel not to finish the crops in their fields after the harvest but should leave some for the poor, stranger, widows, orphans etc. this is supported by Deut. 24:19-22. In which God is commanding the Israelites not to go back and collect that which was left in the fields. Another aspect that is found in the Old Testament scriptures for example in Proverbs 31:8-9. Here it is said that everyone has the God given rights life and liberty that is free from all forms of oppression and injustices. Again when we look in the Pentateuch (Deut. 15:1-11), God commands the Israelite to help the needy among them in the seventh month and also to council the debts of those who cold not pay back Raphael said The command in these passages do not use either of the words for justice to describe their rationale, though the idea behind them is one that was latter assigned to the concept of social justice (2001:15). This same emphasis is also used by the major prophet like Isaiah in which they relate the concept of knowing God to helping the needy for example Isaiah 1:7 associate the notion of mishpat with giving help to the needy. Jeremiah also associates mishpat with tsedeqa (Jeremiah 22:3). It has been indicated that when social activists talk about the poor, needy and disadvantaged, they do not only refer to victims of oppression, but also to people in prosperous countries who are less prosperous even though they have n o lack of food, shelter, clothing, or government and aid agency support (Andrew kulikovsky 2008:11). It can further be said that social justice favours much those who are disadvantaged. There are many scriptural references both in the old and the New Testament which has come out clear on the issue of social justice. For example the prophet Zechariah 7:9-10 talks about where God has forbade the oppression of the widow, the fatherless and strangers or the poor in general further, the prophet Amos is talking more on the oppression of the poor and the strangers. It has been said that Doing justice by assisting the poor and the needy is a obligation of those who have responded to the Gospel. It is not part of the gospel itself (Andrew K. 2008:20). On the contrary, we can not stand on the fact the bible is entirely based on social justice there are some passages in the same bible which contradict the notion of social justice. These biblical passages prohibit favouritism and partiality in matters concerning justice for example Leviticus 19:15 where God is saying that you shall not render unjust Judgment (mishpat), you shall not be partial to the poor or defer to the great: with justice you shall judge your neighbour. Here we see the concept of justice in dealing with legal matters which is concerned with just judgment. Here the king of justice they are talking about is mishpat. Justice must be done in tsedeqa or righteousness. This is also echoed by Ex. 23:3. Not only this but also in Ex. 30:14-15 There was also no partiality when Moses took a census and God required an offering of half a shekel from every one over the age of twenty years (Andrew K 2008:11). The only thing that the poor needed in those days was fair dealing with other people. According to the biblical understanding, the poor are those people who were the victims of injustice and have no one to speak for them in time of oppression. That is why the righteous have the mandate to look after the marginalized (James 1:27) not because they are poor but that they are the victims of injustices. Some scholars such as Ross Langmead as quoted by Andrew K. states that When Jesus gave the manifesto of good news to the poor; he meant salvation and not any form of social justice. So it is not easy for us to dwell of scholars who suggest that the Bible is entirely consisting of social justice. Because it also contains some references which are concerned with legal matters. Edgar wrote From a Christian and Biblical point of view, Justice means giving to people according to need and even giving more than they might receive according to the principle of equality (Andrew K. 2008:14). This is why most concern of social justice is assisting the poor and needy pe ople in the society. This concept has been disputed by Andrew and said that it is very important to understand what it means when the Bible talks of the poor and the needy and the levels of their poverty. Langmead further argues that Biblical justice goes further than strict justice and is imbued with grace, mercy and forgiveness (Andrew K 2008:14). We can not assert on the fact that justice is not Biblical justice unless it is involved in the advocacy of the weak, the poor or the socially disadvantaged. Further Neville says Jesus called for social transformation as confirmed by the nature of his mission and social Justice again Andrew argues to say that this is what the people and the disciples expected, but that was not the gospel of Gods kingdom was about (Andrew K 2008:20). CONCLUSION To sum up all this Biblical Justice must not be thought only in social concept but must also be thought in other terms like giving people according to what is due. God prefers the poor not because they are poor but because they were the victims of injustices, but that is note the only message found in the Biblical teachings.

Why I want To Be A Firefighter Essay -- essays research papers

Firefighting is a career that can make you feel proud and accomplished, and it is a career in which I have a lot of respect for. In order to be a firefighter you must be in shape, prepared, experienced, and ready to deal with your job emotionally as well as physically. I chose to be a firefighter because I want to be able to help others and make them feel safe to live in their communities.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After visiting some actual fire departments, I realized as a firefighter you certainly have a lot to be proud of. It’s not your average job and does require quite a bit of organization to stay on top of everything. Everyday you have to be ready and prepared for just about anything that can happen. You never know what kinds of jobs you are going to be set out to do in one day. This means your equipment should be in order, checked and ready to go.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  While going through training, I began to realize this is a career that is can be emotionally overwhelming. You must be able to cope with mental stress, and stay prepared at all times. Just the fact that you don’t know what you are going to encounter throughout one day can be stressful. Knowing this you must learn how to deal with your emotions, whether it’s through group therapy or just relaxing after work. People are going to depend on you when they’re in a dangerous situation and you must be strong and help them when they are in need. To help others you must also be physically and menta...

jap stuff :: essays research papers

Many of us have seen at least advertisements for this Japanese animation (if you have not, you must have been incarcerated, in a comma or on crack). Innocent looking is it not? But is this really a harmless children's show or a horrific mind controlling device being used on our nations children. One of the major themes of Pokemon is the containment of elemental and physical forces in the forms of cute little creatures with sub-human, super animal intelligence. Basically they are beasts with the powers of gods. Today we have statistics and chaos to predict random events, do we really need this modern mythology? Anyhow this franchise is really a cover for a sinister polytheistic religion bent on dominating children's minds. What a parent see as a harmless toy is really seen by the children as religious icon that they worship. No longer are their ritualistic sacrifices of crops/animals or humans, instead seek sacrifice of cash in the name of the cult. Children see the pokemon as gifts from the gods to the pokemon masters for loyal devotions to the various gods like Thor (Pikachu), Neptune (Squirtle) and others as well as spirits like the sirens (JigglyPuff). These kids will literally pray to, cry over, kill and die for these creatures. Another problem is the concept of the portraying the concept of the "power of one". What is the idea of the of putting that shit in a child's mind. Telling a child they can get ahead by trusting in their own abilities will lead them to loss and a world of pain. Some examples, Joan of Arc got burned alive, Harry Houdini was punched in the stomach and his appendix burst, and Martin Luther King Jr. was shot. What will these children do when they make a stupid decision get in real trouble and their precious Pocket Monsters will not come to their aid?

Essay --

Budgetary shortfalls have become a part of everyday news and a grim reality for both public and private sectors. Negotiating a win-win scenario for all vested parties sometimes can seem like an insurmountable and daunting task. In order to run a successful municipality, all vested parties must collaborate and be solution based. Transparency plays a huge role in establishing trust, credibility and facilitating an agreeable end result. Every financial organization must create a budget. In simple terms, the budget is a plan that outlines how resources will be utilized during a specific period of time. A balanced budget generally translates into an organization demonstrating financial health and or responsibility, (Kennon, 2014). When the amount of goods or services exceeds the amount of revenue being generated, budgets then need to be revised so that they are in line. This generally means that concessions need to be made by governmental officials, union groups, employe es, constituents or all of the aforementioned stakeholders in the community. Due to a drop in revenue, a slight increase in contracted services and an increase in post employment expenditures for the current fiscal year, the mayor of my jurisdiction has asked all department heads to analyze, revise and submit a budget reflecting a 2% decrease in expenditures for the following year. This will allow for the government to remain solvent without raising the tax rate. As the department head of the public safety division, I oversee the budgets for the police and fire departments. This includes 44 full time police officer, 16 full time fire fighters and 10 part time fire fighters. Total yearly expense for the public safety division is $9,460,000 or 72% o... ... this would reduce the number of calls and offset the expense by 25% or $18,750. Each year the police and fire departments are involved in community outreach efforts. Costs in excess of $31,500 for events like the national fire safety week, national night out, crime stoppers, DARE, personal safety seminars and workshops, etcetera are typically absorbed by the public safety department and provided to the community free of charge. Being strategic as to what educational programs are offered and limiting the events to quarterly rather than monthly would save the jurisdiction approximately $7,000 annually without completely eliminating the programs that the community has come to expect. All told with the strategic approach to budget allocation and the implementation of targeted increases for those who violate the law, the proposed savings is $190,250. Essay -- Budgetary shortfalls have become a part of everyday news and a grim reality for both public and private sectors. Negotiating a win-win scenario for all vested parties sometimes can seem like an insurmountable and daunting task. In order to run a successful municipality, all vested parties must collaborate and be solution based. Transparency plays a huge role in establishing trust, credibility and facilitating an agreeable end result. Every financial organization must create a budget. In simple terms, the budget is a plan that outlines how resources will be utilized during a specific period of time. A balanced budget generally translates into an organization demonstrating financial health and or responsibility, (Kennon, 2014). When the amount of goods or services exceeds the amount of revenue being generated, budgets then need to be revised so that they are in line. This generally means that concessions need to be made by governmental officials, union groups, employe es, constituents or all of the aforementioned stakeholders in the community. Due to a drop in revenue, a slight increase in contracted services and an increase in post employment expenditures for the current fiscal year, the mayor of my jurisdiction has asked all department heads to analyze, revise and submit a budget reflecting a 2% decrease in expenditures for the following year. This will allow for the government to remain solvent without raising the tax rate. As the department head of the public safety division, I oversee the budgets for the police and fire departments. This includes 44 full time police officer, 16 full time fire fighters and 10 part time fire fighters. Total yearly expense for the public safety division is $9,460,000 or 72% o... ... this would reduce the number of calls and offset the expense by 25% or $18,750. Each year the police and fire departments are involved in community outreach efforts. Costs in excess of $31,500 for events like the national fire safety week, national night out, crime stoppers, DARE, personal safety seminars and workshops, etcetera are typically absorbed by the public safety department and provided to the community free of charge. Being strategic as to what educational programs are offered and limiting the events to quarterly rather than monthly would save the jurisdiction approximately $7,000 annually without completely eliminating the programs that the community has come to expect. All told with the strategic approach to budget allocation and the implementation of targeted increases for those who violate the law, the proposed savings is $190,250.

The Brady Act: Inconsistent but Served a Purpose

The Brady Law which is technically known as The Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act of 1993 was signed as a law under the presidency of Bill Clinton on November 30, 1993. The law requires that whenever someone purchases a gun, he/ she should wait up to five days for a background check. As long as the Federal Bureau of Investigation has undergone the background check and for so long as the Federal Firearm License has not been issued, then a person can never obtain or own a gun (Bowling et al. , 2006).At the same time, it also required the gun dealers in each of the state should begin conducting and submitting background check requirements on their prospective buyers to the authorities to aid the process of authenticating that buyer’s capability and reliability in owning a gun (Ludwig and Cook, 2003). All states should have similar disqualifications for their applicants. These are fugitive status, court restraining orders, mental illness, and other violence convictions. Becaus e of these, of the 12 million applications that were subjected to background check by the National Bureau of Investigation, there were around 1.4 million that were rejected. However, there are also several rejections done by State and local agency background checks which were argued to be a little inconsistent to the FBI requirements (Bowling et al. , 2006). For instance, most state statutes would require firearm purchasers to have a permit or a license or an identification number right after background check to be presented to the seller before they are allowed to buy a firearm. Within these said statute laws, the background check would require around 7 to 30 days.This is inconvenient and inconsistent with the original Brady Bill because it only mandated a background check for only less than a week and 30 days is way too far from that requirement. Other state laws and agencies require that a seller should convey buyer’s information to the authorities either through mail, tel ephone, or e-mail. Accordingly, the local agencies would respond in about 7 to 10 days. The same as already mentioned, this is also a little bit inconvenient because it is only by then that they start their background check.Other than these, there were also instances were the agencies will have to encounter incomplete records of applicants in their databases which will test the capability of the buyer to purchase a firearm. There is also a discrepancy between the state and the local agencies’ reason on rejection. Federal laws would likely to applicants with domestic violence conviction or indictment. On one hand, local agencies would likely to reject applicants that are drug addicts and mentally ill. Moreover, other states provide for appeals, but only seventeen of them.All of these prove that there is discrepancy and inconsistencies in the implementation of this law (Bowling et al. , 2006). However, despite this, I think the law is still very useful in the maintenance of pea ce and security of the country. This is because the law even when it has been implemented inconsistently by the federal and the state government, it still outlines very concrete requirements and methodology in granting and denying the right of every citizen to possess firearms.This law is obviously concerned on the circumstances that would entail the irresponsible handling and owning of a dangerous weapon like the firearm. It mainly aims to secure the safety of very citizen in the United States and to prevent ruthless assassinations. References Bowling, M and Hickman, J. (2006). â€Å"Background Checks for Firearm Transfers, 2005†. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin. US: US Department of Justice. Ludwig, J and Cook, P. (2003). Evaluating gun policy: effect on crime and violence. USA: Brookings Institution Press.

Malcolm a Homemade Education Essay

Down syndrome is the most common cause of mental retardationDown syndrome is the most common cause of mental retardation. It is caused by the presence of an extra chromosome. Chromosomes contain sequences of DNA called genes that represent the genetic information that exists within a cell. Twenty-three distinctive pairs of chromosomes which is 46 in total. They are located within the nucleus (a region of the cell that is bounded by a specialized membrane, and which houses the genetic material). When a sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell, the newly created zygote normally receives 23 chromosomes from each parent. The contribution of genetic information from each parent is what makes each baby a distinctive blend of both characteristics. In Down syndrome a mistake during division of the sperm or egg cell produces a cell with an extra chromosome 21. This event occurs during cell division and is referred to as nondisjunction, or the failure of all chromosomes to separately properly resulting in retention of one of the chromosomes in one of the two new daughter cells. This is also called trisomy 21 and is accounted for 95% of all Down syndrome patients. A rare number of Down syndrome cases the original egg and sperm cells begins with the correct number of chromosomes but shortly after fertilization during the phase where cells are dividing rapidly a single cell can divide abnormally creating a line of cells with an extra chromosome 21. It’s called a cell line mosaicism. The individual with this type of down syndrome has two types of cells: some 46 chromosomes which is the normal number and some with 47. Individuals who are mosaic for trisomy 21 typically have less sever sign and symptoms of the disorder. Another are location that can cause down syndrome is called a chromosome translocation. This is an even that unlike the numerical abnormally causing trisomy 21, there is a structural abnormality. Exchange of material from two different chromosomes during the production of sex cells can take place such that there is a whole chromosome 21 attached to another chromosome but the chromosome number is normal. [1]These types of translocation involving chromosome 21, occur in about 3-4% of cases of Down syndrome. Ancient cultures, such as those in Greece, Rome, and Egypt, put disabled infants to death. Compassion toward the disabled was awakened by the early Christian church, but its charitable influence waned during the middle ages. Down syndrome also affected this people due to no one really caring about what was going on with the ill children. Down syndrome has a lot of causes and this is normally what some parents want to know is why their child is born with this syndrome. Most times this is why they tell you while you are carrying your child you need to watch very closely and look for all signs of genetic disorders with pregnant. Down syndrome is a chromosomal disorder as I said before. A baby is usually identified at birth through observation of a set of common physical characteristics. Babies with Down syndrome tend to be overly quiet. When I say that I mean less responsive with weak floppy muscles. With that being said a number of physical signs might be present. This includes a flat bridge of the nose which is smaller than normal. It’s a low set nose. They will tend to have a small mouth with a protruding tongue, upward slanting eyes and also extra folds of skin located at the corner of each eye, near the nose. They will have small outwardly rotated ears and small hands as well. Usually they have an unusual deep crease across the center of the palm and a malformed fifth finger. They will have a wide space between the big and the second toes and unusual creases on the soles of the feet. They also experience shorter than normal height later on in their childhood. Before genetic testing became available, Down syndrome was diagnosed based on certain typical physical characteristics. Not all people with Down syndrome have all these characteristics though. This can vary from certain people and are caused by the extra chromosomes. Individuals with Down syndrome also have joints that are looser than normal. Their skulls are short and broad. Newborns usually have extra skin on the back of their neck, and as the child gets older the neck often appears short and wider than usual. [2]Facial shape is round in the newborn and also during infancy. When the child gets older their face shape becomes oval like. This is due to the underdevelopment they go through. Their cheeks are round and the teeth develop late and in an unusual order. Although Down syndrome is not curable and there will be no cure for it, parents, researchers, and also the Down syndrome individuals try to make the best out of life and try dealing with it. Advances in medical treatment over the past 40 to 50 years for conditions such as heart defects and respiratory disease have led to dramatic increases in the life expectancy of those with Down syndrome. [3] Half of the children born with Down syndrome during the late 1960s survived to age 5. Bronchopneumonia, a respiratory illness and heart defects were the most common causes of death. Now about 80% of those born with it survive to age 10, and about 50% of them survive to age 50 or beyond. The recent statistics from various study places show that the place of incidence of Down syndrome anywhere from 1 in 600 to 1 in 1,000 live births. An analysis published by various people. Bray and colleagues in 1998 of combined data from nine different studies found that the incidence varies from 1 in 1,445 live birth mothers at age 10 to 1 in 25 live births to mothers at age 45. Down syndrome really is a hard disorder to live with but at the same time it has its advantages. Down syndrome has no treatment options but they have a lot of programs to help cope with this syndrome. The development of a child is a joyous thing. It involves amazing ohhs and ahhhs that would shock you every day your child does something new. All kids from the time their able to sit up by them and walks are learning new things everyday. Even as adults we learn new things everyday but still with Down syndrome, everything that they accomplish is outstanding. All kids learn to develop their fine motor skills but there are different aspects when it comes to Down syndrome children. The development of motor skills is very hard. The first thing you have to do is have a laid out foundation of how you plan on teaching that child. This is very dependent on stability. [4]Stability is being able to push open a heavy door. It’s being able to put on your shoes without falling. It is carrying a tray full of drinks. Its really a list that goes on but with this syndrome most things aren’t accomplished because down syndrome babies lack stability. Most of the people diagnosed wit this syndrome also tends to walk a little strange. They walk from side to side and always have their head twisted. Now as kids get older and reach their age past ten, then your not exactly ok, but you can breathe a little. Most researchers are still concerned about the older ones but its really the babies that most are worried about. They tend to go through a lot as newborns and unto there early infants stages. [5] Babies with Down syndrome suffer a lot. They have a lot they feel and go through, but being an infant and not being able to talk doesn’t help at all. Being born with Down syndrome you experience how it is from that point on and for the rest of your life. Children with this syndrome almost always have some degree of intellectual disability. That is why they learn slower and have difficulty with complex reasoning and judgment. The degree of intellectual impairment various tremendously. These kids do learn and what they do learn they will not forget. Down syndrome can not be prevented but it is People with Down syndrome, whatever their age, are people first. They are people with abilities, strengths and weaknesses like everyone else. They may have additional needs but first they have the same needs as everyone else of their age group. The quality of health care, education and community support provided to children and adults with Down syndrome makes a real difference to their progress throughout life. This module provides an introduction to all the issues that need to be addressed to enable individuals with Down syndrome, and their families, to enjoy full and happy lives within their communities. It offers an overview of the development of individuals with Down syndrome from infancy to adult life. It also provides a summary of the causes of Down syndrome, the incidence and prevalence of the condition, life expectancy and associated education and health care needs. Children with down syndrome experience problems with their digestive tract at a rate that is much higher than that of other children. [6] some of these problems such as blockage of the digestice tract can be life threatening and can require emergency surgery. Blockage or atresia of the esophagus or the duodenum can cause starvation if not corrected. Atresia occurs when the anal opening does not develop. This condition prevents solid waste from being eliminated from the intestinal tract and must be corrected surgically. Anal stenosis will allow waste products to pass, but will cause constipation. Gastroesophageal feflux is also more common in individuals with down syndrome. During this stage food reenters the esophagus from the stomach. This can cause vomiting and irritation of the esophagus. You can also have vision problem s with down syndrome to. Theses problems are common with those suffering with down syndrome. Strabismus in which one or both euyes either truns in or out. Occurs in 43% of theses chuldren. It is caused by abnormal or incomplete development of the cneters in the brain that control the coordination of eye movements. This condition may require an eye patch, special glasses or even surgery. Vision therapy may also be benificial and should be considered before surgery. Hearing problems also come with syndrome. [7] anatomical differences that result from trisomy 21 contribute to the larger percentage of hearing difficulties founf in individuals with down syndrome. Appromately 53% in children with down syndrome have hearing problems. This makes it more difficult to examine the ars for wax buildup and infection. The middle ear is smaller than normal, as well. This contributes to the presence of chronic ear infections in 40% to 60% of children with downs syndrome. The shallow nasal bridge founfd in 61% of individuals with down syndrome also contributed. Collapse or blockage of the eustachian tube, which leads from the ear to the throat, causes fluid to build up in the middle ear and increases the risk of middle ear infection. [8]In children with down syndrome the eustachian tubes are often smaller tha normal and have lowered muscle tone. Problems with fluid build up in the middle ear occur in 60% of indiviuals with down syndrome this fluid buildup interferes with hearing and can cause permanent hearing loss if it remains for a long peopif of time. Estimates of hearing loss in people with down syndrome range from 60% to 80%. Hearing loss in children can contribute to language and speech difficulies as well as auditory attention. Monitoring for fluid buildup and infections of the middle ear should begin before the age of six months and should continue into adulthood. Hearin aids may be a choice as well. Another problem that occurs in down syndrome individuals is problems with thyroid gland. Weighing less than one ounce the thyroid is actually one of the largest endocrine glands. Thyroid hormones help regualte the synthesis of growth factore and many hormones. Thyroid hormones are crucial for proper brain development during pregnancy. They are also important in normal growth. Because they are composed of the amino acid tyrosine, to which iodine molecules have been atattched adequate iodine in the diet is esstenial for their production. Another hormone produced by the thyroid gland is calcitonin which regulates the levels and metabolism of calcium. The hormones tri-iodothyonine and tetraiodothyonine are produced by the thyroid gland in a ratio of 1;14. t4 is secreted by the thyroid gland in responses to TSH. The active form, T3 is formed in the kidney, liver, and pleen by removal of one iodine molecule from T4. individuals with down syndrome also are 10 to 30 times more likely to develop Leukemia. [9] This is a type of cancer caused by the production of abnormal qhite blood cells by the bone marrow. These abnormal cells eventually crowd out normal white and red blood cells. There are two main types of leukemia. Acute and chronic. Acute leuk emias develop slowly and the patienst condition worsens slowly. Chronic leukemia develops rapidly and the patients syptoms worsen quickly. About 10% of babies born with down syndrome develop a transient leukemia that usually goes away by 3 months of age. About 20% to 30% of those with this transient condtion go on to develop acute leukemia. Babies who do not have down syndrome rarely have the transient form of leukemia. This higher risk of leukemia is in contrast to the risk of other types of cancer in individuals with down syndrome. The incidence of most types of solid tumors is muh smaller than in the general population. Down syndromes rates has also increased. From 1979 to 2003, the prevalence (total number of cases of a disease in a population at a specific time) of Down syndrome (DS) at birth increased by 31 percent, from 9 to 12 per 10,000 live births in 10 US regions. Within the 10 regions, birth prevalence of DS ranged from a low of 9. 7 in Arkansas to a high of 13. 7 in Utah during 1997-2003. The number of infants born with DS was almost 5 times higher among births to older mothers (38. 6 per 10,000) than among births to younger mothers (7. 8 per 10,000). In 2002, DS was found to be present in about 1 of every 1,000 children and adolescents aged 0 to 19 living in 10 chosen regions of the United States, which means that approximately 83,000 children and adolescents with DS were living in the United States during that year. Prevalence of DS by age group was the highest in 0-3 year olds at 11. , declining to 10. 3 among 4-7 year olds, 9. 8 among 8-11 year olds, 8. 3 among 12-15 year olds, and 6. 0 among 16-19 year olds. A screening test will help identify the possibility of Down syndrome. Screening tests do not provide conclusive answers, but rather, they provide an indication of the likelihood of the baby having Down syndrome. An abnormal test res ult does not mean that your baby has Down syndrome. The goal with a screening test is to estimate the risk of t baby having Down syndrome. If the screening test is positive and a risk for Down syndrome exists, further testing may be recommended. Diagnostic tests can identify Down syndrome before the baby is born. January issue of Obstetrics & Gynecology, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists released guidelines recommending screening for Down syndrome to all pregnant women during their first trimester. Agnostic tests tend to be more expensive and have a degree of risk; screening tests are quick and easy to do. However, screening tests have a greater chance of being wrong; there are â€Å"false-positive† (test indicates the baby has the condition when the baby really does not) and â€Å"false-negatives† (baby has the condition but the test indicates they do not). As far as those individual kids with Down syndrome there is a lot that they can do, just as the regular ones. Kids with Down syndrome tend to have a sense of humor. Those with this disorder have slurred words and stutter but what you can understand they have pretty good conversation. Also in about 4 percent of all down syndrome cases the individual possesses not an entire third copy of chromosome 21 material, which has been incorporated via a translocation into a no homologous chromosome. In translocation pieces are swapped between two non-related chromosomes forming hybrid chromosomes. The most common translocation associated with Down syndrome is that between the long arm (down gene area) of chromosome 21 and an end of chromosome 14. [10] The individual in whom the translocation has occurred shows no evidence of the aberration since the normal complement of genetic material is still present only a different chromosomes location. The difficulty arises when this individual forms gametes. A mother who possesses the 21/14 translocation, for example has one normal 21 one normal 14 and the hybrid chromosomes. She is a genetic carrier for the disorder because she can pass it on to her offspring even though she is clinically normal. The mother can produce three types of viable gametes: one containing the normal 14 and 21. the presence of an extra copy of the long arm of chromosome 21 causes defects in many tissues and organs. One major effect of Down syndrome is mental retardation. The intelligence quotients of affected individuals are typically in the range of 40-50. The IQ varies with age but being higher in childhood than in adolescence or adult life. The disorder is often accompanied by physical traits. Trisomy 21 is one of the most common chromosomal aberrations occurring in about 0. 5 percent of all conceptions and in one out of every seven hundred to eight hundred live births. About 15 percent of the patients institutionalized for mental deficiency suffer from Down syndrome. Before the chromosomal basis for the disorder was determined the frequency of Down syndrome births was correlated with increased maternal age. For mothers at age twenty the incidence of down syndrome is about 0. 5 percent which increases to 0. 9 percent by the age thirty-five and 3 percent at age forty-five. Comparing the chromosomes of the affected offspring with those of both parents have shown that the nondisjunction event is maternal about 75 percent the time. The maternal age effect is thought to result from the different manner in which the male and female gametes are produced. Gamete production in the male event in females. Formation of the femaleâ €™s gametes begins early in embryonic life, somewhere but between the eight and twentieth weeks. During this time, cells in the developing ovary divide rapidly by mitosis forming cells called primary oocytes. These cells then begin meiosis by pairing up the homologues. The process is interrupted now and the cells are held in a state of suspended animation until needed in reproduction, when they are triggered to complete their division. Most individuals with Down syndrome have intellectual disability in the mild (IQ 50–70) to moderate (IQ 35–50) range, with individuals having Mosaic Down syndrome typically 10–30 points higher. Dr. Weihs notes the mental qualities of people with Down syndrome to be â€Å"unisexual,† â€Å"playful,† â€Å"affectionate,† â€Å"mischievous† and â€Å"imitative†. [21]Language skills show a difference between understanding speech and expressing speech, and commonly individuals with Down syndrome have a speech delay. Fine motor skills are delayed and often lag behind gross motor skills and can interfere with cognitive development. Effects of the condition on the development of gross motor skills are quite variable. Some children will begin walking at around 2 years of age, while others will not walk until age 4. Physical therapy, and/or participation in a program of adapted physical education (APE), may promote enhanced development of gross motor skills in Down syndrome children. A 2002 literature review of elective abortion rates found that 91–93% of pregnancies in the United Kingdom and Europe with a diagnosis of Down syndrome were terminated. [54] Data from the National Down Syndrome Cytogenetic Register in the United Kingdom indicates that from 1989 to 2006 the proportion of women choosing to terminate a pregnancy following prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome has remained constant at around 92%. In the United States a number of studies have examined the abortion rate of fetuses with Down syndrome. Three studies estimated the termination rates at 95%, 98%, and 87% respectively. Medical ethicist Ronald Green argues that parents have an obligation to avoid ‘genetic harm’ to their offspring, and Claire Rayner, then a patron of the Down’s Syndrome Association, defended testing and abortion saying â€Å"The hard facts are that it is costly in terms of human effort, compassion, energy, and finite resources such as money, to care for individuals with handicaps†¦ People who are not yet parents should ask themselves if they have the right to inflict such burdens on others, however willing they are themselves to take their share of the burden in the beginning some physicians and ethicists are concerned about the ethical ramifications of the high abortion rate for this condition. [59] Conservative commentator George Will called it â€Å"eugenics by abortion†. 60] British peer Lord Rix stated that â€Å"alas, the birth of a child with Down’s syndrome is still considered by many to be an utter tragedy† and that the â€Å"ghost of the biologist Sir Francis Galton, who founded the eugenics movement in 1885, still stalks the corridors of many a hospital†. Doctor David Mortimer has argued in Ethics & Medicine that â€Å"Down’s syndrome infants have long been disparaged by some doctors and government bean counters. Some members of the disability rights movement â€Å"believe that public support for prenatal diagnosi s and abortion based on disability contravenes the movement’s basic philosophy and goals. Peter Singer argued that â€Å"neither hemophilia nor Down’s syndrome is so crippling as to make life not worth living from the inner perspective of the person with the condition. To abort a fetus with one of these disabilities, intending to have another child who will not be disabled, is to treat fetuses as interchangeable or replaceable. If the mother has previously decided to have a certain number of children, say two, then what she is doing, in effect, is rejecting one potential child in favor of another. She could, in defence of her actions, say: the loss of life of the aborted fetus is outweighed by the gain of a better life for the normal child who will be conceived only if the disabled one dies. Individuals with Down syndrome have a higher risk for many conditions. The medical consequences of the extra genetic material in Down syndrome are highly variable and may affect the function of any organ system or bodily process. Some problems are present at birth, such as certain heart malformations. Others become apparent over time, such as pilepsy. Other things Down syndrome patients go through are very emotional. For people with Down syndrome it is very hard to cope with the everyday activities. It is also hard on the family, especially the parents. It can be very frustrating for the parents to cope with having a child with Down. People born with Down syndrome require so much more extra attention than that of a normal child. Suggestions from some psychologists are for the parents to go to some kind of group sessions to talk to other parents who have children with Down. Therefore, someone else can understand the frustrations that they go through in raising their child. People with Down syndrome have a lot of different emotions running through their mind and body. People with Down syndrome, whatever their age, are people first. They are people with abilities, strengths and weaknesses like everyone else. They may have additional needs but first they have the same needs as everyone else of their age group. The quality of health care, education and community support provided to children and adults with Down syndrome makes a real difference to their progress throughout life. This module provides an introduction to all the issues that need to be addressed to enable individuals with Down syndrome, and their families, to enjoy full and happy lives within their communities. It offers an overview of the development of individuals with Down syndrome from infancy to adult life. It also provides a summary of the causes of Down syndrome, the incidence and prevalence of the condition, life expectancy and associated education and health care needs. Further modules in this series address each of these issues in detail. Down syndrome patients also have another way to look at things. The most of the time feel different and out of place. Most would like to know who Down syndrome affects. For instance what race and what are the ratios of living past a teenager Children and adults with Down syndrome have a wide range of abilities. A person with Down syndrome may be very healthy or may have unusual and demanding medical and social problems at virtually every stage of life. It’s important to remember that every person with Down syndrome is a unique individual. Each child will develop at his or her own pace. It may take children with Down syndrome longer than other children to reach develop Down syndrome cannot be cured. However, early treatment can help many people with Down syndrome to live productive lives well into adulthood. Children with Down syndrome can often benefit from speech therapy, occupational therapy, and exercises to help improve their motor skills. They might also be helped by special education and attention at school. Some of the medical problems common in people with Down syndrome, like cataracts, hearing problems, thyroid problems, and seizure disorders, can be also treated or corrected. It has been suggested that children with Down syndrome might benefit from medical treatment that includes amino acid supplements and a drug known as Piracetam. Piracetam is a drug that some people believe may improve the ability of the brain to learn and understand. However, there have been no controlled clinical studies with Piracetam to date in the U. S. or elsewhere that show its safety and efficacy. The life expectancy for people with Down syndrome has increased substantially. In 1929, the average life span of a person with Down syndrome was nine years. Today, it is common for a person with Down syndrome to live to age 50 and beyond. In addition to living longer, people with Down syndrome are now living fuller, richer lives than ever before as family members and contributors to their community. Many people with Down syndrome form meaningful relationships and eventually marry. Now that people with Down syndrome are living longer, the needs of adults with Down syndrome are receiving greater attention. With assistance from family and caretakers, many adults with Down syndrome have developed the skills required to hold jobs and to live semi-independently mental milestones, but many of these milestones will eventually be met.