Classical Criminology Essay -- Crime Deviance Psychology Essays

Classical Criminology The classical school of criminology was around in the eighteenth century. It came abount in a time when the previous dominent spiritual look at defining crime and criminal behaviour was being challenged by a newer naturalistic approach of the social contract theorists. The classical school was the established ideas of monarchs, fedual lords and the fathers of the church. The main pioneers of the classical school were Cesar Beccaria ( 1738-1974) from Italy and Jeremy Bantham from Britain (1948-1832). From them writing their theories in the eighteenth century they established the essential components of the rational actor model. They both shared the idea that crime and criminal behaviour could be understood and controlled by human nature. The classical school was not intrested in studying crime and criminals, it got its theorys from law making and legal processing. The new ideas of '' enlightenment'' philoshefers were Montisque, Rasseau, Voltaire, Thomas Aquins and Locke. The fundermental principles of the classical school are made up of four main things. These are, free will, rationality, self-intrest and responsibility. Free will - People thought that god made people commit the crime, the classical school thought that people are not forced into commiting crimes. They believe that its our choice to behave in a criminal or non criminal way. We have a range of choices, and it is up to us if we want to break the law. Rationality,- This is where we think about each pro and con of each action we take, and we think about what we are doing. Self-intrest.- The classical school believed that we were all born s... ...present the state. In proportion to all this, the law must specify the relationship between law and the punishment given. The Punishment must come very soon and as quick as possible after the crime has been commited. The judge's and the jurys administer the law and punishment and interprate the law. Beccaria's theorys have a huge impact on modern criminal law. The idea of free will is built into many legal codes. Jermy Bantham was a philoshopher and a leading disciple of Beccaria. He too thought that human nature had some place in people becoming criminals. He too was a believer in that people would commit crime to minimalise pain and maximise pleasure. Bantham believed that it was incorect up-bringing that caused people to commit crime. Works Cited Roger Hopkins Burke. An Introduction to Criminological Theory

The Return :: essays research papers

The Return Essay   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The novel The Return, written by Sonia Levitin, is a fascinating novel written to show the oppression that Ethiopian Jews suffer. The Return is about a young Ethiopian Jewish woman named Desta, who, with her immediate family, travels to Israel for freedom. During this journey, her brother Joas is shot and dies, she has difficulty finding the group she is supposed to walk with, and she has to stay in a refugee camp for a short period of time. Finally, she reaches her destination and lives in Israel from then on. There are three main topics illustrated in this novel. Prejudice and its effects, maturing and finding one’s own identity, and joining together to achieve common goals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Prejudice against Ethiopian Jews plays a big role in the Jews’ lives. For example, early on in the novel, Joas makes Desta realize that Ethiopian Jews are not even allowed to pray aloud. This relates to prejudice and its effects because praying aloud is very important for Jews and taking that away from them is the ultimate form of oppression. Furthermore, the novel explains that Ethiopian Jews are called Falasha (strangers) even though they have lived in Ethiopia for generations and are citizens. This is an example of the prejudice because calling an entire section of the population strangers makes them feel like outsiders. Also, when Desta and her aunt want to sell their pottery, the other Ethiopians pay them an unfair price. The prejudice against Ethiopian Jews is illustrated by the fact that non-Jewish Ethiopians cheat Jewish Ethiopians in commerce. Finally, when Desta and Almaz go to a small town on the way to Israel, the people of the town begin shouti ng at them, â€Å"You are buda, go before we kill you!† The people also refuse to give them food even though they are obviously starving. This episode in the novel shows the racial hatred felt by many against Jews.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During the journey to Israel, maturing and finding one’s own identity plays a big part in Desta’s and her family’s lives. For example, when Joas is shot, Desta has to take care of her younger sister and lead the way to Israel. This shows maturing on Desta’s part because now she is the one in charge, she is able to take care of her younger sister and get food so that she and her sister do not starve and she never gives up on going to Israel.

The House on Mango Street Cultural Values :: House Mango Street

The House on Mango Street Cultural Values Sandra Cisneros' strong cultural values greatly influence The House on Mango Street. Esperanza's life is the medium that Cisneros uses to bring the Latin community to her audience. The novel deals with the Catholic Church and its position in the Latin community. The deep family connection within the barrio also plays an important role in the novel. Esperanza's struggle to become a part of the world outside of Mango Street represents the desire many Chicanos have to grow beyond their neighborhoods. Religion holds a powerful position in the lives of Latinos. It provides a built in censor of right and wrong in the form of extreme guilt (Aranda 150). The chapter "A Rice Sandwich" divulges the way guilt is established. Here Esperanza wants to eat at the canteen for lunch, but the nuns just insult her, and this makes her cry. She says they were "...pointing to a row of three ugly flats, the one the raggedy men are ashamed to go into. Yes...though I knew that wasn't my house" (Cisneros 45). The fact that her victimizers were nuns made her even more embarrassed about where she lived than she already was. Family can either be a brick of foundation or a wrecking ball in the Chicano world. Cisneros says, "We're very family centered, and that family extends to the whole Raza" (Aranda 150). Throughout Mango Street Esperanza's family is a brick of foundation. Esperanza's best friend is her sister. She also has fun at her aunt's expense, and she inherits her grandmother's first name. This inheritance symbolizes the strong family bond of Latinos in their effort to keep the family names alive. Esperanza dreams of someday having a satisfying life. She doesn't want her path of freedom to be cleared by having a baby or finding a husband. She has no desires to fall into the trap of dependency. As the author writes, "Her power is her own. She will not give it away" (Cisneros 89).

Animal Farm Essay

In the movie, I began to see examples of collectivism and individualism. For instance, in collectivism the group comes before the individual. The â€Å"experts† do all the thinking for the people. Which in this case, the pigs, Napoleon and snowball were the experts. They made the rules that the farm animals had to abide: all animals were equal, no animal shall be killed by another, no sleeping on beds or drinking alcohol ect. As the revolution went on, the animals helped one another,like we as people do in the everyday world. Napoleon soon felt as if snowball was getting in the way of his dictatorship and had him killed. Napoleon now became the leader, and even spread the word to other farms so other pigs could start the same revolution. The weaker animals were sacrificed the laws that were set soon changed, the farm animals became more and more like slaves , they ate less, worked dawn to dusk and no longer were equal. The law now was some animals were equal but some more than others. While the farm animals did all the hard work, the pigs got to sit back, relax and eat all the food for themselves. With that said, Collectivism is a lot like communism, the pigs had control of the farm animals, made the laws, even everything the farm animals made soon belonged to the pigs. It’s like how the world is today, part of the hard earned money and things we make go to the government. The government and the corporations are the pigs. On the individualistic side of things, in individualism the individual comes before the group. They only worry about their family and close friends. Towards the end of the movie, the horse was sold off and later killed, because he was no more use for the pigs. The donkey who is a close friend to the horse took that as a final straw and recognized what the pigs were really doing. Compared to individualism they fought with what they believed in. That no individual should work for pigs like them. That’s how it is with humans we fight with what me believe in.

Leadership Interview Essay

â€Å"Today’s professional nurses assume leadership and management responsibilities regardless of the activity in which they are involved† (Koernig-Blais, Hayes, Kozier, & Erb, 2006, p. 2). D. Martin. is the nurse manager for The Spirit Medical Transportation Services (Spirit) of Saint Joseph’s Children’s Hospital in Marshfield, Wisconsin. She started her career as an ICU nurse, and from there moved into medical transportation. She worked as a staff flight nurse in three different programs, including Spirit, for 15 years before assuming the assistant nurse manager role for Spirit, and in the past year moved into the position of manager. In an interview with D. Martin she discussed achieving of a position of leadership in our nursing community. The interview included questions about her background, and the role she has today. Leadership Style D. Martin (personal communication, March 6, 2008) describes a leader as someone who is able to work effectively with other people and facilitate getting the job done. She further discusses the leader needing to have interactive communication skills. These skills she describes as two parts; first is active listening, making eye contact and giving full attention to the person speaking; the second is being able to talk and make a point with sounding condescending. Through her examples, D.Martin has a democratic or participative leadership style. Leaders with a democratic style act as a catalyst or facilitator to guide the group towards achieving group goals (Koernig-Blais et al, 2006). Democratic leadership may be less efficient than other types of leadership, but it does allow for a spirit of collaboration and creativity from group members. This type of leadership can be extremely effective in the healthcare setting (Tappen, 2001, p. 26)Personal Philosophy and Important Qualities of Leadership When questioned about important qualities or characteristics of a leader, D. Martin (personal communication, March 6, 2008) again emphasized the importance of interactive communication. D. Martin (personal communication, March 6, 2008) stated that an effective leader needs to respect their staff, or whomever they are leading. That a leader needs to learn how to be politically correct in all settings, and the  leader as manager needs to learn how to delegate, and to be aware of the fiscal responsibilities within the institution, and balance those requirements with the needs of the department they are managing. Sullivan and Decker, 2005 p. 44 state that â€Å"all good managers are also good leaders.† D. Martin talked interchangeably of leaders and managers, because she views herself as a leader first, and a manager second. Her views are that as a staff nurse, she was viewed as a leader among the flight crew, and now as a manager, she is still that leader, but with the responsibilities of management (D. Martin personal communication, March 6, 2008). A manager is responsible and accountable to the organization for accomplishing the goals of the organization (Sullivan & Decker, 2005). When D. Martin was questioned about her personal philosophy of leadership she replied that â€Å"you are never going to please everyone all of the time, and that the most important thing to remember is that you have to be able to live with your decisions, legally and ethically† (D. Martin, personal communication, March 6, 2008). According to D. Martin (personal communication, March 6, 2008), quality and safety should be ranked equally at number one in consideration for what can and should be done. She believes that as a manager, she needs to be the mother tiger looking out for her cubs; that she has to protect the staffs’ interests. D. Martin also believes that an effective manager should have come up through the ranks. A manager should not ask the staff to do something she has not done, or would not do. Another aspect of an effective manager is that the manager should have been a clinical leader first, that they have been there, done that for years. The manager may not always be able to keep up those clinical skills, and be able to perform the clinical aspects of the job, but if they have done it for years, they will understand the concepts when the staff needs someone to talk to (D. Martin, personal communication, March 6, 2008)Learning Experiences that have Influenced Growth as a LeaderD. Martin believes that her own clinical experiences and what she has done have had the most influence on her personal development. Her bedside clinical experience in an ICU prepared her for her role as a transport nurse (personal communication, March 6, 2008). She was involved in the start-up of two different transport services, and her third experience was a transport nurse on a well established service. The first transport service she was part of was a load and go team with one of the first mobile ICU’s in Wisconsin. Her belief is that being on the ground floor of two services, the personal growth from those experiences as the service went through it’s growing pains, makes her better prepared for the growing pains of going from peer to boss. She also emphasized that managers should not take things for granted, if they have not been where they are asking their staff to go, she feel strongly that she brings a â€Å"been there, done that† style to her leadership (D. Martin, personal communication, March 6, 2008). Evolution of Nursing Leadership in Healthcare TodayThe interview continued with the question of how she sees leadership evolving in nursing today. Her first response was disappointed. When she first started out in nursing, many registered nurses were from an associates program, and the recommendation for a management position, or to teach was someone with a bachelor’s degree in nursing. Once she had achieved her bachelor’s, the bar had been raised with the recommendation that managers have their master’s degree, in nursing or in business, and that nursing instructors have their PhD in nursing or education (D. Martin, personal communication, March 6, 2008). Her thought is that with the requirement of that much schooling, the people managing departments, and teaching new nurses, are so far removed from the clinical aspects of nursing, that they are not as effective as someone who has recently been a clinical nurse. She feels nursing needs instructors that have â€Å"been there,† and instructors should not be â€Å"only those with the highest degrees.† There needs to be opportunities for nurses to move up through the ranks through independent nursing practice, and recognition needs to be given to the clinical experts at the bedside. The advanced degree should not be more important than clinical expertise in a given field (D. Martin, personal communication, March 6, 2008). Challenges Facing Leaders in Today’s Healthcare SystemsD. Martin (personal  communication, March 6, 2008), believes that the most challenging issues in her current position are the need to have a more global perspective, and having an appreciation for it. She described one aspect of that global perspective in terms of the hospital budget. Finding out what the hospital budget is, and that it comes down from the top of the corporation, not just the top of our individual hospital. Patients are important, but from a business standpoint, money is the bottom line (D. Martin, personal communication, March 6, 2008). Healthcare is a business, and needs to be run as a business. She states that the biggest passion she had to give up was that the patient comes first. She had to learn how to facilitate the system, within the budget given, and with the resources available to her. Management cannot give the staff everything they are asking for, the money, and decisions come from the top down. â€Å"Management would be easy if you didn’t have to deal with the people† (D. Martin, personal communication, March 6, 2008). The Impact of a Mentor on Leadership StyleD. Martin (personal communication, March 6, 2008) states that she has had three mentors in her career. Each is unique and she is grateful to them. Her first was her nurse manager of her first flight service. She states that he too came up through the ranks. He taught her the importance of creating a balance between management and work. Her next mentor was her first nurse manager when she started at Saint Joseph’s, Terri. Terri was her mentor through her master’s program, and taught her the importance of being politically correct and fair. That, as a manager, you might not agree with what is being said, but you need to have enough self control to not let them see you do not agree with the company line, or to never let them see you sweat (D. Martin, personal communication, March 6, 2008). Her third mentor was her nurse manager for the 11 years she was a flight nurse with Spirit. Through him she learned that different management styles are okay, and that an open door policy was what she respected most about his style. He also taught her the importance of credibility, and to not make promises you may not be able to keep (D. Martin, personal communication, March 6, 2008). Advice to Someone Interested in LeadershipD. Martin (personal communication, March 6, 2008) discussed the difficulty going from peer to boss. Her recommendation would be for anyone in that position to take a class on effective leadership to learn more on how to delegate, find resources and about fiscal responsibility. She did inform me that Saint Joseph’s Children’s Hospital does offer a two day seminar to employees on this topic, and she further recommends all Neonatal Intensive Care Transport Nurses take this class, as they all function in a leadership role (D. Martin, personal communication, March 6, 2008). Her other advice was to be ready to put in long hours. To be passionate about whom you want to lead. Be clinically competent, and have confidence in yourself, and your knowledge. Stand up for yourself and your staff. Learn to take risks, and trust your instincts (D. Martin, personal communication, March 6, 2008). Conclusion Leadership and management are the responsibility of all professional nurses. Effective leadership and management is a learned process. Mentors can have a positive impact on the personal and professional growth of a nurse. Personal integrity, honesty, and a concern for human dignity should guide all leadership and management decisions (Koernig-Blais et. al, 2006). References: Koernig-Blais, K., Hayes, J., Kozier, B., & Erb, G. (2006). Professional Nursing Practice: Concepts and Perspectives (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Sullivan, E. J., & Decker, P. J., (2005). Effective Leadership and Management in Nursing (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall HealthTappen, R. M., (2001). Nursing Leadership and Management: Concepts and Practice (4th ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.

Hcl marketing stratergies

Later there was limited choice for mostly products and companies didn't have to put much efforts to sale their product. But today's scenario is totally different. Consumers have choice because of availability of varieties and options. We can say today's consumer is the king of market. So it is important to know his buying behavior and try to fulfill his demand. Company's aim should be customer delight not costumer satisfaction. The purpose of this dissertation project is to know the marketing strategies which HOC Manifestoes Ltd. Sees to become the market leader in the field of Personal Computers and Different marketing strategies adopted by HOC to compete with others. HOC Manifestoes how much is fulfilling the customer needs and try to sale the maximum of personal computer This dissertation report making was really good learning period for me. I got opportunity to know the theoretical knowledge related to marketing strategies. This dissertation report is part of course of PAGE progr am, which is set by CACTI, and it is necessary for every student to under go for dissertation project.This project report is also made for submission to Institute of Management Education, Sahib's. Sustains including in this report are research methodology, analysis of activities, conclusion and bearing from this project Bibliography is also given in last to know from where information has been taken to complete this project. I hope this project will serve the purpose. IT HARDWARE INDUSTRY: AN INTRODUCTION The Indian IT industry is, undoubtedly, a shining Jewel in the country crown. The achievements of our IT companies have earned us the respect of the most developed nations of the world.The skills, ingenuity, dedication and drive of our young IT professionals is acknowledged worldwide. Today, there will hardly be a company of any stature anywhere in the globe where Indian IT professionals are not making a stellar contribution. However, most of the growth in IT has been in the softwa re services and support segment. I do believe that if we are going to continue our thrust and growth in the IT industry, it is imperative that we develop a robust hardware industry and emerge as an important destination for high end product development.While software development has been the more visible face of our IT industry, we cannot deny the fact that ultimately it is ‘hardware' that runs the ‘software'. While ‘hardware' is of no use without software, the converse is also equally true. The development of a vibrant ‘hardware' industry in India has been lagging behind on account of various factors. The underlying fact is simple. Unless companies are able to manufacture products that can compete with the world's best in quality and unless they manufacture in volumes that make them cost efficient and globally competitive, they will not survive.A major bottleneck in the development of the ‘hardware' industry has been the lack of a strong local componen t industry. It is my humble suggestion that the government, both at national and state levels do everything in their power to promote such industries so that by the end of this decade, we can have a strong and world-class component industry. Sure, we have a long way to go to catch up with Taiwan or China or even Malaysia, but I believe with the right encouragement we can develop a strong ‘hardware' industry. I must make a point here about the viability of ‘hardware' as an industry in India.It is a myth that the ‘hardware' business is not profitable. This point of view has been largely perpetrated on account of the large number of players who made half hearted or weak attempts to enter this business. To be a success in the hardware business requires both vision and grit. I often give the example of my own company D-Link (India) which, starting out as a small manufacturer of modems has grown to become a RSI. Billion company with a product range that extends from mode ms to routers. But success has not come easy.We have made massive investments in both plant and people and have spared no effort in getting the best of equipment and talent. More importantly, we have set up a strong R&D backbone to support our manufacturing. Which brings me to the next point: the importance of R&D? Technology in the IT space changes very rapidly. Technological obsolescence is not just a ‘click'- it has thrown strong companies out of business. In this scenario, the importance of R&D can hardly be overemphasized. It is vital that those who venture onto ‘hardware' industry are seized of this fact.Only through strong R&D can manufacturers ensure continuous product improvements and keep their offerings truly ‘state-of-the-art'. Over a period of time, with a strong R&D base, Indian companies can look forward to developing innovative products and own Intellectual Property Rights (par's) on such products. I dream of the day, and I believe it's not too far away, when technology for products developed by Indian companies would be licensed to global manufacturers as well as innovative products manufactured by Indian companies would be available worldwide.The state of our hardware industry and R&D infrastructure is quite the same as that of the software industry a couple of decades ago. Visionaries like Unmannerly and Skim Preemie have shown that we have the potential to achieve global stature in a business. Extending our sights a little further, we have seen how a Armband or Dry. Redder have got recognition for Indian R&D in the Pharmacy industry. There is no reason, therefore, why we can't develop a strong R base in the IT industry as well.The development of a strong hardware industry base would also go a long way in increasing the IT penetration in our country, which is still very low. I do believe that we have all the elements to become a significant player in both IT hardware as well as R. As IT penetration increases, as organizatio ns across the country network, as we build more robust IT backbones in various spheres of our activity, we will need more and more hardware. Rather than be totally dependent on imports, we need to have a thriving component and hardware industry backed by strong R.Along with our strength in software services, it will provide another cornerstone towards India truly becoming a global IT superpower. India a Global IT Super Power The Indian computer hardware industry has growing at a rate of over 30 per cent annually for the past few years and this pace is expected to be maintained until 2005. As the first table above shows, domestic manufacture has been increasing, but so also have imports. The locally manufactured computers cater to low-end applications while the imported computers continue to facilitate CAD, CAM, CASE, multi-media, and other high-end applications.Indian computer hardware and peripherals industry segments are dominated by U. S. Joint ventures and suppliers. IBM in coll aboration with Tats, Hewlett Packard in association with HOC Limited, Digital Equipment Corporation with Hindsight Group, Silicon Graphics with Tats, Oust to mention four major Joint ventures) manufacture computer hardware for the domestic and export markets. Compact, Silicon Graphics, and Dell have opened offices to sell their computers in India. Sun Microsystems and Apple distribute their products through Wiper Information Technology Limited.Most business firms in India have not computerized. Many of those who have, still use outdated products such as dot-matrix printers instead of laser and ink-Jet printers. As more and more international companies set up office in India, the demand for hardware will increase. The growing awareness of the case to shed fat in the public sector will call for more automated operations; this too will generate demand for computers. The prospects for both exports to, and investment in, this sector are excellent.IT hardware manufacturing in India is a c lassic case of the chicken and egg syndrome. Should we wait for the market to grow to high volumes that Justify creating a manufacturing base in India, or should we Just kick-start manufacturing so that prices then come down and thereby create volumes? The debate has raged on long enough and no consensus seems to be emerging. Rather, things took a turn for the worse with recent years witnessing a perceptible decline in manufacturing activity.Therefore, when a recent MATT study, conducted Jointly with Big Five firm Ernst & Young, concluded that the Indian hardware industry had the potential to reach a size of $62 billion by 2010, it not only raised many an eyebrow, but derisive laughter from skeptics. Sample some salient conclusions of the study which paint a rosy future for India Hardware Inc: By 2010, the Indian hardware industry has the potential to grow to twelve times its existing market size, with the domestic market counting for $37 billion and exports accounting for another $ 37 billion.The study has identified major export opportunities in the areas of innovative new devices, contract manufacturing and design services. The study says that component exports offers an opportunity worth $5 billion, while that of design and related services in embedded systems and wireless telecommunication services can bring in another $7 billion by 2010. Further, ambitious projections have been made in the area of contract manufacturing, which represents a $11 billion opportunity if India succeeds in capturing a share of only 2. Percent of the global pie by 2010. Though the rosy projections look good on paper, is this growth really possible?Skeptics deride the study as an attempt by the hardware industry to copy its software counterpart, which has been tom-timing Mascot and Muckiness's projection of $87 billion in software revenues by 2008. MATT officials are however quite upbeat. Says Avian Deckhands, president of MATT, â€Å"There are four key steps which we need to ta ke to make India a manufacturing-friendly country. Firstly, market India as a hardware destination and build a brand akin to software. Making India manufacturing-friendly through improvements in infrastructure and logistics should follow this.We should also emphasis on design and innovation through the development of Indian solutions for Indian needs. All these initiatives need to be backed up by the government with adequate funds. † The bright side For a country whose economy is so heavily dependent on agriculture, a vibrant hardware industry has the potential to generate three million Jobs, especially for Indians who come from economically underprivileged sections, who aren't very highly educated. So, in the words of Deckhands, the hardware industry can be some sort of a panacea for Indian's unemployment problem.Also, with the size of the contract manufacturing industry expected to be over $500 billion by the year 2010, Indian firms could grab a significant chunk of the pie in a manner pretty similar to Indian's emergence as a key player in the global BOP stakes. And, with a potentially huge market in embedded systems emerging, Indian firms with the right mix of hardware and software can be big players here. For the record, of all the high-end processors produced in the world, only 6 percent are used in PC's and the remaining 94 percent are used in entertainment electronics, non-PC devices, communication products and embedded electronics.The hardware revolution is also essential for the continued high growth of the software industry. As Vine Meta, director of MATT, puts it: â€Å"India can lose out on the software advantage it has already built up, and the future potential, if it does not concentrate on the hardware front. For example, the estimated domestic hardware requirement by 2008 to meet the software target of $87 billion is $160 million. † And now the problems But before India Inc. Can go into ballistic mode on the hardware front, there are lots of serious issues that need to be addressed.Issues like lack of local availability of input raw material, ever changing government policies, inconsistent sales tax structures in different states, high interest rates, customs duties on capital goods, poor infrastructure, inordinately long and variable transit times all add to uncertainty, delays and increased costs. Something that hardware manufacturers dread. Explains Mango Church, country manager-manufacturing, IBM India, â€Å"Everyone in India cribs about duty, but even China has a similar duty structure.The main reason why companies prefer to locate their manufacturing operations in China is because customs processing in China is much faster. Here, even after a manufacturer's raw material arrives at a port it might take another month or so before the goods reach his factory. In the fast changing world of technology, that's virtually suicidal for companies into hardware manufacturing. Besides, labor laws in China are al so very flexible. In India, laments Raja Sara, chairman and managing director of Zenith Computers, there are a lot of restrictions for the hardware industry. The software industry has grown in leaps and bounds simply because there have been no restrictions. On the other hand, even if I do manufacture in an SEE in India, I Anton sell my products in the domestic market. The government says everything should be exported. But it should realism that the industry will always flock to an area where there are least restrictions. † The government can also take a cue from the fact that if the industry is allowed to grow to three times the size it currently is today, it can earn more tax from its revenues.The manufacturing industry in India also suffers from a lack of proper environmental standards. With environmental concerns mainly ignored or casually overlooked by Indian corporate, Macs desist from setting p manufacturing bases here since there is no compliance with ISO 14000 standard s, which deal with environmental issues. On the design front too, there are lots of opportunities left to be explored. Design exports are a $7 billion opportunity in areas like embedded systems and wireless telecommunications.While Indian firms do some work on hardware design exports, many unfortunately show this as software exports to avoid tax. Fact is, some experts say a robust design sector could play a huge role in bringing down PC prices too a significant reason why PC penetration remains low in India. For example, on a CPU that costs $150, the material cost is not even $4. Adds Deckhands, â€Å"If we can get a design, like say a PI, made either by ourselves or if we can get the government to buy out a design and start manufacturing here, this would bring costs down substantially in PC's. The silver lining The Indian hardware industry could learn a thing or two from the Taiwanese hardware industry, where companies started off as component assemblers some years ago. Today, the same firms are world leaders, and in fact outsource their manufacturing designs to other countries. A majority of Taiwanese firms are now original manufacturers of chippies. Another instance that could inspire companies to set up local manufacturing bases is the example of D-Link. D-Link is one of the very few hardware companies in India that does local manufacturing.Recently, the company tied up with Taiwan-based Gigabyte Technology to manufacture and market motherboards locally. D-Link will manufacture approximately 30,000 motherboards per month. Besides giving D-link a key advantage in terms of technology, it also means utilization of D-Links manufacturing facilities. The cost savings per motherboard when manufactured here works out to be approximately $5. Hence, if illume are huge, it does makes sense to outsource contract manufacturing to India.And for skeptics who doubt the quality of Indian products, Ram Augural, managing director, Wiper peripherals has a ready answer, †Å"Doubting Thomas who keep on questioning the quality of Indian products should know that Legend computers, the largest maker of PC's in China, buys network interface cards from India. † Going forward, if the government and the hardware industry proactively decide to work together and solve issues rather than have one hand clamoring for duty concessions, and the other avoiding issues, the Indian hardware industry could finitely go the software way-as MATT and Ernst & Young have said.The only question to ask is whether the government and the industry are up to it. Around the world, enterprise IT spend has been on the decline. The economic downturn coupled with inconsiderate or unplanned spending on IT in the last decade, has contributed to all this. So what is the scenario in India? As per last year's survey (IS 2002-?June issue of Network Magazine), Close had committed to spend an average of RSI 554 Lack on IT-related investments. This spending was more or less equal to what t hey had spent in the previous year (2001-2002). So, did Indian enterprises spend that amount?As per this year's survey, the average amount spent on IT was only RSI 468 Lack. This implies there has indeed been a decline in IT spending. Close did not fully utilize the amount they had budgeted for IT related projects. The largest spenders in 2002-03 were BIFFS, Telecoms/ IT/TIES, and Gobo. /US. The average amounts spent were RSI 1109 Lakes, RSI. 954 Lack, and RSI 649 Lack respectively. All other industry verticals show modest spends. Technology is a key component for BIFFS and Telecoms/let/lets verticals. This explains why spending on IT is high in these sectors.Also, nationalized banks have been spending substantial amounts on computerizing. Us have traditionally been big spenders, given the need to link distant locations. And with various state governments and quasi-government institutions pushing initiatives like e-governance, technology has been of high-priority here too. So, which were the technology verticals that received a maximum chunk of the shrunken IT budget? 68 percent Close said they invested in Bandwidth/connectivity last year. 64 percent in Enterprise hardware procurement, and 48 percent in Enterprise packaged software.Security comes fourth with 47 percent having invested in this area. More or less ? We were keen to find out the number of Close who had spent more than the amount budgeted. Nearly 60 percent said they had spent the exact amount budgeted for IT in 2002-03. 20 percent said they had spent less, while only 1 5 percent claimed to have spent more than the amount budgeted. A majority of those who had spent less than the amount budgeted are from large-sized companies (turnover exceeding RSI. 500 scores). Nearly 22 percent large-sized companies spend less on IT.The reason Enid this is obvious: Most of the large-sized companies already have sizable investments in IT when it comes to automating back-end and front-end processes. In this particu lar case, the reasoning was to build a buffer within the IT budget, to provision for any last minute or unforeseen procurement/maintenance costs that may arise. Even in the case of leading IT spenders like BIFFS, Telecoms/ IT/TIES, Gobo. / Us, more than one-fifth of companies have spent less than the amount budgeted, indicating a slowdown in IT spending.On the rise again The IT spend in 2003-04 is on the rise again, albeit slowly. This year companies plan to spend on an average RSI 493 Lack, indicating a 5 percent increase in IT spending. The major spenders are again the BIFFS, Telecoms/ IT/TIES, and Gobo. / US verticals. The BIFFS vertical is registering significant spends; their average budget has climbed from RSI 1109 Lack in 2003-04, to RSI 1310 Lack in 2004-05. In Telecoms/let/lets and Gobo. / US, both major spenders last year, the allotted budget is same when compared with last year.In almost all other verticals, companies are registering a small increase in the budget allotte d for IT. In terms of turnover, IT spending in medium-sized impasse is expected to grow by 20 percent, while in large organizations the IT budget may actually shrink by 11 percent. What technology? This brings us to our next question: Which technologies are companies investing in? The top areas of IT spend, in terms of technologies, are: Bandwidth/connectivity (57 percent plan to invest), Enterprise hardware (55 percent), Storage (46 percent), and Security (46 percent).Both Storage and Security are clearly gaining prominence in the BIFFS sector where information security and availability is critical. The Indian IT and Electronics market in 2003-04 was worth SIS$ 20. 3 billion of which SIS$ 12. 7 billion consisted of software. Electronics and IT hardware production stood at SIS$ 7. 93 billion. Some 3,500 units are engaged in electronics production manufacturing goods as diverse as TV tubes, test and measuring instruments, medical electronics equipment, analytical and special applicat ion instruments, process control equipment, power electronics equipment, office equipment, components etc.Market researcher DC estimates that the market-value estimate over next 3 years for hardware products is RSI. 75,OHO scores. The Indian electronics and hardware industry as been lagging behind the impressive performance of the software sector. Most of the hardware requirements of the burgeoning software and telecoms sectors are met by imports which are about 25%. The Ministry of Information Technology, Gobo. Of India has estimated that the total requirement of hardware and components by 2008 would be in range of SIS$ 160 billion and the investment required in the manufacturing facilities would be US$ 16 billion.MASCOT, the leading IT industry body estimates that to achieve a software export target of SIS$ 87 billion in 2008, the hardware requirement would be US$ 50 billion. By far the most comprehensive study was carried out by Ernst & Young in association with MATT, the hardwar e industry body in 2002. It estimates that given the right incentives, Indian's electronic hardware industry has the potential to reach SIS$ 62 billion by 2010, twelve times its existing size with the domestic market accounting for SIS$ 37 billion and exports of SIS$ 25 billion.The major export opportunities would be in the area of innovative new products, contract manufacturing and design services. This shows that there are large opportunities for Indian companies to increase their strength and grave these opportunities for future growth. HOC Manifestoes Ltd is one of those companies which are working to increase their network and making innovative new products. HOC Manifestoes Ltd. Is currently engaged in selling manufactured hardware (like PC's, servers, monitors and peripherals) and traded hardware (like notebooks, peripherals) to institutional clients as well as retail channel partners.Besides, it offers hardware support services to existing clients through annual maintenance c ontracts, net work consulting and facilities management. In 2003-04, He's total hardware turnover was RSI. 12. 97 billion, higher by around 24% veer the corresponding fugue for 2002-03. Of this, manufactured hardware constituted 60%, traded hardware 32% and hardware support services 9%. The company's reported operating margins in 2003-04 (including six months of OH, telecommunication and software businesses) increased to 6. 7% from 5. 9% in 2001-02, primarily because of better margins in hardware.While average material costs declined in 2003-04, the company was able to retain a part of the margins in its product realizations. Better margins in hardware resulted in the return on capital employed (RACE) from hardware increasing from 1 1. 9% in 2002-03 to 25. % in 2003-04. In the domestic home PC organized sector, HOC Manifestoes is the market leader. Other players include Zenith Computers, MM, Sun Microsystems, Wiper, Hewlett Packard. Assembled personal computers have a large presence in the domestic home PC market, accounting for a chunk of the total sales.The overall market for desktop personal computers registered a 28. 2 percent growth during calendar year 2004 as compared to the previous year. What is significant is that branded PC's continue to make impressive gains against the gray market. According to DC, the share of branded PC's grew from 36. Percent in 2004 to 49. 2 percent in 2005, registering an impressive growth rate of 74. 3 percent. Interestingly, the gray market remained flat, registering a growth of 2. 2 percent, while the total desktop PC market registered a growth of 28. 2 percent.According to DC, the recent re-surfacing of finance-based purchase options had an accelerating effect on the consumer desktop market, which is already witnessing a consistent drop in end-user prices for both the branded and unbranded PC segments. Among the vendors, HOC Manifestoes emerged as the market leader with a share of 13. 7 percent. The company registered a 9 1. Percent growth during 2004 as compared to the previous year. HP followed HOC with a market share of 1 1. 9 percent. HP too grew at a blistering pace registering a growth rate of 73. 03 percent.IBM is in the third place with a market share of 6. 2 percent. DC is not the only research firm confirming the signs of robust growth. Gardner, in a recent report, states that the Indian desktop market grew by 31. 5 percent in 2005. Says Viand Nair, Analyst, Computing Systems, Gardner India, â€Å"Peaking business confidence based on strong economic growth catcalled PC purchases in both consumer and corporate segments throughout 2005. † While every research firm has given different figures, one thing is common-the PC market is booming at double-digit growth rates.MATT (Manufacturers Association of Information Technology) estimates that the desktop PC market grossed 17. 1 lakes units in the first half of fiscal 2004-05, registering a growth of 37 percent over the same period of the pr evious fiscal. With the Indian economy booming, MATT estimates that PC sales will touch the 40 lakes mark in fiscal 2004-05. The buoyancy in PC sales can be attributed to increased consumption by traditional industry verticals such as telecoms, banking, financial services and insurance, BOP, manufacturing and government.Consumption also increased in non-traditional sectors such as education, retail outlets and self-employed professionals. In future, He's hardware sales to the institutional segment are likely to remain stable, with sustained hardware spending by all the verticals, especially the banking and financial services sector. Besides, in retail hardware sales, a continued reduction of price points, facilitated in part by the recent reduction in excise duties on PC's,

Brief History of Art Therapy

A BRIEF HISTORY OF ART THERAPY Randy M. Vick This history of art therapy focuses on the precursory and continuing trends that have shaped the theory and practice and the literature that reflects this development. Scholarship, like history, builds on the foundations laid by others. I am indebted to the authors of four other histories that I found to be particularly useful in the preparation of this chapter. Both Malchiodi (1998) and Rubin (1999) have assembled histories based on contributing trends, as did Junge and Asawa (1994) who have pro-vided extensive details on the personalities and politics involved in the formation of the American Art Therapy Association. My fourth primary source (MacGregor, 1989), while never intended as a book about art therapy, has proven to be an excel-lent â€Å"prehistory† of the field. Each of these references provided information as well as inspiration and I encourage readers to consult them for additional perspectives. Finally, it should be noted here that art therapy was not a phenomenon exclusive to the United States. Readers interested in art therapy's development in Europe should consult Waller's (1991, 1998) two books on this subject. History is like a tapestry with each colored thread contributing not only to the formation of the image but to the strength and structure of the fabric itself. Imagine for a moment a tapestry with bobbins of different-colored threads, each adding a hue that becomes part of a new creation, and we can better understand the history of this field. INFLUENCES FROM THE DISTANT PAST AND NEIGHBORING FIELDS Art therapy is a hybrid discipline based primarily on the fields of art and psychology, drawing characteristics from each parent to evolve a unique new entity. But the inter weaving of the arts and healing is hardly a new phenomenon. It seems clear that this pairing is as old as human society itself, having occurred repeatedly throughout our history across place and time (Malchiodi, 1998). The development of the profession of art therapy can be seen as the formal application of a long-standing human tradi-tion influenced by the intellectual and social trends of the 20th century (Junge & Asawa, 1994). 1 From the Realms or Art Art making is an innate human tendency, so much so it has been argued that, like speech and tool making, this activity could be used to define our species (Dissana-yake, 1992). In his book, The Discovery of the Art of the Insane, MacGregor (1989) presents a history of the interplay of art and psychology spanning the last 300 years. This history covers theories of genius and insanity, biographies of â€Å"mad† artists, depictions of madness by artists, and the various attempts to reach an understanding of the potential art has as an aid to mental health treatment and diagnosis. In 1922, German psychiatrist Hans Prinzhorn (1922/1995) published The Artistry of the Men-tally III, a book that depicted and described the artistic productions of residents of in-sane asylums across Europe. This work challenged both psychiatric and fine arts professionals to reconsider their notions of mental illness and art (MacGregor, 1989). Even today, debate rages within the field variously titled outsider art/art brut/visionary art/folk art as experts struggle to place work by self-taught artists (some of whom have experienced mental illness) within the art historical canon (Borum, 1993/1994; Russell, 2002). Contemporary writers from art therapy and other disciplines continue to explore the notion of art practice for the purpose of personal exploration and growth (Alien, 1995; Cameron & Bryan, 1992; C. Moon, 2002) and to reevaluate the traditional boundaries between personal and public art (Lachman-Chapin et al. , 1999; Sigler, 1993; Spaniol, 1990; Vick, 2000). Medicine, Health, and Rehabilitation Hospitals have long served as important incubators for the field of art therapy. For better or worse, medical model concepts such as diagnosis, disease, and treatment have had a strong influence on the development of most schools of thought within Western psychotherapy, including art therapy. While psychiatry has always been the medical specialty most closely allied with the field, art therapists have worked with patients being treated for AIDS, asthma, burns, cancer, chemical dependency, trauma, tuberculosis, and other medical and rehabilitation needs (Malchiodi 1999a, 1999b). Our understanding of the interplay between biochemistry, mental status, and creativity continues to evolve and a new medical specialty, arts medicine, has recently emerged 2 (Malchiodi, 1998). All this seems to suggest that art therapy will continue to have a role in exploring the connections between body and mind. TRENDS IN 19TH- AND 20TH-CENTURY PSYCHOLOGY For much of human history mental illness was regarded with fear and misunderstanding as a manifestation of either divine or demonic forces. Reformers such as Rush in the United States and Pinel in France made great strides in creating a more humane environment for their patients. Freud, Kris, and others contributed to this rehumanization by theorizing that rather than being random nonsense, the productions of fantasy revealed significant information about the unique inner world of their maker (MacGregor, 1989; Rubin, 1999). Building on these theories, many writers began to examine how a specific sort of creative product—art—could be under-stood as an illustration of mental health or disturbance (Anastasi & Foley, 1941; Arnheim, 1954; Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972). Other authors began recognizing the po-tential art has as a tool within treatment (Winnicott, 1971). Soon enough, the term â€Å"art therapy† began to be used to describe a form of psychotherapy that placed art practices and interventions alongside talk as the central modality of treatment (Naumburg, 1950/1973). The significance psychoanalytic writers placed on early childhood experiences made the crossover of these theories into education an easy one (Junge & Asawa, 1994). Some progressive educators placed particular emphasis on the role art played in the overall development of children (Cane, 1951/1983; Kellogg, 1969; Lowenfeld, 1987; Uhlin, 1972/1984). This trend toward the therapeutic application of art within educational settings continues today (Anderson, 1978/1992; Bush, 1997; Henley, 1992). PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND RESEARCH In addition to psychoanalysis and the rehumanization of people with mental illness, one of the strongest trends to emerge within modern psychology has been the focus on standardized methods of diagnostic assessment and research. Whether discussing the work of a studio artist or the productions of a mentally ill individual, Kris (1952) argues that they both engage in the same psychic process, that is, â€Å"the placing of an inner experience, an inner image, into the outside world† (p. 115). This â€Å"method of projection† became the conceptual foundation for a dazzling array of so-called projective drawing assessments that evolved in psychology during the 20th century (Hammer, 1958/1980). These simple paper-and-pencil â€Å"tests,† with their formalized procedures and standardized methods of interpretation, became widely used in the evaluation and diagnosis of children and adults and are still employed to a lesser degree tod ay (though often with revamped purpose and procedure). Two parallel themes from this era are the relatively unstructured methods of art assessment (Elkisch, 1948; Shaw, 1934) and the various approaches to interpreting these productions (Machover, 1949/1980). The impact of psychoanalysis on the early development of art therapy was pro-found. Hammer's (1958/1980) classic book on drawing as a projective device illustrates the diversity within this area and the inclusion of two chapters on art therapy by pioneering art therapist Margaret Naumburg demonstrates the crossover of influences. Many of the more common stereotypes about art therapy (specific, assigned drawings; finger painting; and the role of the therapist in divining the â€Å"true meaning† of the drawings) can, in fact, be traced directly to this era. Nearly all the major art therapy writers from this time developed their own methods of assessment consisting of batteries of art tasks with varying levels of structure (Kramer & Schehr, 1983; Kwiatkowska, 1978; Rubin, 1978/1984; Ulman & Dachinger, 1975/1996). Even today, the notion that artworks in some way reflect the psychic experience of the artist is a fundamental concept in art therapy. Despite this common history, there are distinctions between the approach to assessment used in psychology and that found in art therapy. The key difference is the art therapy perspective that the making and viewing of the art have inherent therapeutic potential for the client, a position not necessarily held by psychometricians. In addition, art therapists tend to use more varied and expressive materials and to deemphasize formalized verbal directives and stress the role of clients as interpreters of their own work. Finally, art therapists are also quite likely to improvise on the pro-tocol of standardized assessments to uit a particular clinical purpose (Mills & Goodwin, 1991). An emerging theme in the literature is the unique role the creative arts therapies can play in the assessment and evaluation of clients (Bruscia, 1988; Feder & Feder, 1998). Contemporary developers of art therapy assessments have abandoned ortho-dox psychoanalytic approaches in favor of methods that emphasize the expressive potential 4 of the tasks and materials (Cohen, Hammer, & Singer, 1988; Cox Frame, 1993; Gantt & Tabone, 1997; Landgarten , 1993; Silver, 1978/1989). Early art therapy researchers also looked to psychology and embraced its empiri-cal approach for their research (Kwiatkowska, 1978). More recently, models from the behavioral sciences and other fields have been used as resources in conducting art therapy research (Kaplan, 2000; McNiff, 1998; Wadeson, 1992). THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART THERAPY LITERATURE The development of any discipline is best traced through the evolution of that field's literature. The historian's convention of artificially dividing time into segments is employed here to illustrate three phases of growth in the profession of art therapy. Classical Period (1940s to 1970s) In the middle of the 20th century a largely independent assortment of individuals began to use the term â€Å"art therapy† in their writings to describe their work with clients. In doing so, these pioneering individuals began to define a discipline that was distinct from other, older professions. Because there was no formal art therapy training to be had, these early writers were trained in other fields and mentored by psychiatrists, analysts, and other mental health professionals. The four leading writers universally recognized for their contributions to the development of the field during this period are Margaret Naumburg, Edith Kramer, Hanna Kwiatkowska, and Elinor Ulman. The lasting impact of their original works on the field is demonstrated by the fact that their writings continue to be used as original sources in contemporary art therapy literature. More than any other author, Naumburg is seen as the primary founder of American art therapy and is frequently referred to as the â€Å"Mother of Art Therapy† (see Junge & Asawa, 1994, p. 22). Through her early work in the innovative Walden School, which she founded (along with her sister Florence Cane), and later in psychi-atric settings she developed her ideas and, in the 1940s, began to write about what was to become known as art therapy (Detre et al. , 1983). Familiar with the ideas of both Freud and Jung, Naumburg (1966/1987) conceived her â€Å"dynamically oriented art therapy† to be largely analogous to the psychoanalytic practices of the day. The clients' art productions were viewed as symbolic communication of unconscious material in a direct, uncensored, and concrete form that Naumburg (1950/1973) argued would aid in the resolution of the transference. While Naumburg borrowed heavily from the techniques of psychoanalytic practice, Kramer took a different approach by adapting concepts from Freud's personality theory to explain the art therapy process. Her â€Å"art as therapy† approach emphasizes the intrinsic therapeutic potential in the art-making process and the central role the defense mechanism of sublimation plays in this experience (Kramer, 1971/1993). Kramer's (1958, 1971/1993) work in therapeutic schools (as opposed to Naumburg's psychiatric emphasis) allows for more direct application of her ideas to educational settings. Ulman's most outstanding contributions to the field have been as an editor and writer. She founded The Bulletin of Art Therapy in 1961 (The American Journal of Art Therapy after 1970) when no other publication of its kind existed (Junge &c Asawa, 1994). In addition, Ulman (along with her coeditor Dachinger) (1975/1996) published the first book of collected essays on art therapy that served as one of the few texts in the field for many years. Her gift as a writer was to precisely synthesize and articulate complex ideas. In her essay â€Å"Art Therapy: Problems of Definition,† Ulman (1975/1996) compares and contrasts Naumburg's â€Å"art psychotherapy† and Kramer's â€Å"art as therapy† models so clearly that it continues to be the definitive presentation of this core theoretical continuum. The last of these four remarkable women, Kwiatkowska, made her major contributions in the areas of research and family art therapy. She brought together her experiences in various psychiatric settings in a book that became the foundation for working with families through art (Kwiatkowska, 1978). Like Kramer, she had fled Europe at the time of World War II adding to the list of emigre thinkers who influenced the development of mental health disciplines in the United States. She also coauthored a short book that helped introduce the field of art therapy to the general public (Ulman, Kramer, & Kwiatkowska, 1978). Each of these pioneers lectured widely on the topic of art therapy and served as some of the field's first educators. It was also during this period that the first formal programs with degrees in art therapy were offered (Junge Asawa, 1994; Levick, Goldman, & Fink, 1967). Finally, it is important not to forget the other early pioneers working in other parts of the country, such as Mary Huntoon at the Menninger Clinic (Wix, 2000), who made contributions to the developing profession as well. 6 Middle Years: Other Pioneering Writers (1970s to Mid-1980s) The 1970s through the mid-1980s saw the emergence of an increasing number of publications that presented a broader range of applications and conceptual perspectives (Betensky, 1973; Landgarten, 1981; Levick, 1983; McNiff, 1981; Rhyne, 1973/ 1995; Robbins & Sibley, 1976; Rubin, 1978/1984; Wadeson, 1980), although psychoanalysis remained a dominant influence. The development of the literature was also enriched during this period with the introduction of two new journals: Art Psychotherapy in 1973 (called The Arts in Psychotherapy after 1980) and Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, in 1983 (Rubin, 1999). The in-creasing number of publications, along with the founding of the American Art Therapy Association in 1969, evolved the professional identity of the art therapist, credentials, and the role of art therapists vis-a-vis related professionals (Shoemaker et al. 1976). Contemporary Art Therapy Theories (Mid-1980s to Present) The art therapy literature continues to grow. In 1974, Gantt and Schmal published an annotated bibliography of sources relating to the topic of art therapy from 1940-1973 (1,175 articles, books, and papers), yet Rubin (1999) notes that in that same year there were only 12 books written by art therapists, a number that crawled to 19 some 10 years later. By the mid-1980s this pace began to incre ase so that there are now more than 100 titles available. Rubin (1999) also speculates that art therapists may be more comfortable with an intuitive approach than other mental health practitioners because as artists they â€Å"pride themselves on their innate sensitivities, and tend to be antiauthoritarian and anti-theoretical† (p. 180). Recently, approximately 21% of art therapists surveyed by the American Art Therapy Association described their primary theoretical orientation as â€Å"eclectic,† the single largest percentage reported (Elkins & Stovall, 2000). This position is in keeping with one delineated by Wadeson (in Rubin, 1987/2001) and should not be surprising in a field that itself draws from a variety of disciplines. The next five most frequently reported models: psychodynamic (10. 1%), Jungian (5. 4%), object relations (4. 6%), art as therapy (4. 5%), and psychoanalytic (3. 0%) all place a strong emphasis on intrapsychic dynamics, and this cumulative 27. 6% suggests that much contemporary practice is still informed by generally psychodynamic concepts (Elkins & Stovall, 7 2000). In a landmark book, Approaches to Art Therapy first published in 1987, Rubin (1987/2001) brought together essays by authors representing the diversity of theoretical positions within the field. Perspectives from these and other relevant sources are briefly summarized here. PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES The ideas of Freud and his followers (see Chapter 2, this volume) have been part of art therapy since the earliest days, although contemporary writers are more likely to apply terms such as â€Å"transference† and â€Å"the defense mechanisms† to articulate a position rather than employ classic psychoanalytic techniques ith any degree of orthodoxy. Kramer, Rubin, Ulman, and Wilson (all cited in Rubin, 1987/2001) and Levick (1983) all use psychoanalytic language and concepts. Interpretations of the newer developments in psychoanalysis such as the theories of Klein (Weir, 1990), self psychology (Lachman-Chapin) and object relations theory (Robbins) can also be found in the art t herapy literature (both cited in Rubin, 1987/2001). With his emphasis on images from the unconscious, it was natural for Jung's concepts of analytical and archetypal psychology to cross over into art therapy (see Chapter 2, this volume). Work by Edwards and Wallace (both cited in Rubin, 1987/ 2001), McConeghey (1986), and Schaverian (1992) all reflect this emphasis. HUMANISTIC APPROACHES Elkins and Stovall (2000) suggest that only a small number of art therapists operate from a humanistic position (among humanistic, Gestalt, existential, and client centered; the highest response was to the first category with 2. 9). Yet if these approaches can be defined as sharing â€Å"an optimistic view of human nature and of the human condition, seeing people in a process of growth and development, with the potential to take responsibility for their fate† (Rubin, 1987/2001, p. 119), these figures belie a sentiment held by many art therapists (see Chapter 3, this volume). Garai (cited in Rubin, 1987/2001) has written from a general humanistic position, Rogers (1993) and Silverstone (1997) use a person-centered model, and Dreikurs (1986) and Garlock (cited in Rubin, 1987) have adapted ideas first articulated by Alfred Adier. Other models that fall under the humanistic heading include existential (B. 8 Moon, 1990/1995), phenomenological (Betensky, 1995), and gestalt (Rhyne, 1973/1995) approaches. LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACHES Perhaps because they are perceived to be mechanistic, those psychological theories that emphasize learning tend to be less popular with art therapists. In the Elkins and Stovall (2000) survey, cognitive-behavioral (see Chapter 6, this volume), cognitive, developmental (Chapter 8, this volume), and behavioral received an ndorsement of over 2%. Yet there are art therapy authors whose work has been informed by these theories. Silver (2000) has written extensively on assessment using a cognitive approach, and the work of Lusebrink (1990) and Nucho (1987) is based in general systems theory. Art therapists working with children with emotional and developmental disabilities have also adapted concepts from developmental (Aach-Feldman & Kunkle-Miller, cited in Rubin, 1987/2001; Willia ms & Wood, 1975) and behavioral psychology (Roth, cited in Rubin, 1987/2001). FAMILY THERAPY AND OTHER APPROACHES A number of writers (Landgarten, 1987; Linesch, 1993; Riley & Malchiodi, 1994; Sobol, 1982) have built on Kwiatkowska's early family work, particularly in California where art therapists become licensed as marriage and family therapists. Riley (1999) also incorporates concepts from narrative therapy into her work (Chapter 5, this volume). Relational (Dalley, Rifkind, & Terry, 1993) and feminist (Hogan, 1997) approaches question the hierarchy in the client/therapist relationship and empower-ing the client and have also shaped contemporary art therapy practice. Publications by Horovitz-Darby (1994), Farrelly-Hansen (2001), and McNiff (1992) reflect an emphasis on spiritual and philosophical concepts over psychological theory. Frank-lin, Farrelly-Hansen, Marek, Swan-Foster, and Wallingford (2000) describe a transpersonal approach to art therapy. Alien (1992) called for a reversal of the perceived trend in overemphasizing the clinical orientation and encouraged art therapists to refocus on their artist identity. Writings by Lachman-Chapin (1983); Knill (1995), who espouses an expressive arts therapies approach (Chapter 8, this volume); and C. Moon (2002) reflect this studio approach to theory and practice. 9 CONCLUSION Every art therapist knows there is much to be learned from the process of making an artwork as well as from standing back and viewing the finished product. The tapes-try that is art therapy is not a dusty relic hung in a museum but a living work in progress. There is pleasure in admiring the work that has already been done and excitement in the weaving. It is my hope that readers can appreciate the processes and the products that have shaped this profession. 10